Mindsets of Secondary School Teachers: A Look At Intelligence In The Context of Implicit Theories

Öz

Implicit theories of intelligence are belief systems that reflect individuals' understanding or assumptions about the nature, structure and development of intelligence. These beliefs, often thought to be unconscious, influence people's attitudes, behaviors and responses to challenges in contexts related to intellectual activities. The purpose of this research is to understand the experiences of secondary school teachers regarding implicit theories of intelligence intelligence that are believed to play a role in individuals' personality and academic live. In this respect, the research aims to explain how teachers approach the concepts of fixed mindset and growth mindset, and to explore how their thinking styles are reflected in their cognitive structures, academic qualifications and practices while performing their teaching activities. Phenomenological research design was used in the study. The study group consisted of 25 teachers from seven different branches who were working in the Ordu city center and district state secondary schools during the 2021-2022 academic year. The research data obtained with the semi-structured interview form were analyzed in five basic stages using the content analysis approach. The findings reveal that teachers' implicit beliefs about intelligence may differ depending on their teaching domains and that these beliefs may affect their educational approaches. It also shows that teachers often have experiences in their lessons that serve fixed mindsets, and that the origin of mindsets depends on educational policies (curricula), parents' attitudes towards education and learning, school climate and teachers. The results are discussed in a framework that explains the possible educational outcomes of teacher mindsets. In this context, three main recommendations were made for making adjustments to implicit theories of intelligence in in-service teacher training programs, conducting comprehensive and in-depth research to develop a more concrete understanding of teachers' implicit beliefs about intelligence, and extending this researchs to other stakeholders of education besides teachers, students, parents, and school leaders.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• fixed mindset
• growth mindset
• implicit theories of intelligence
• teacher beliefs
• the nature of intelligence

Ortaokul Öğretmenlerinin Zihniyetleri: Örtük Teoriler Bağlamında Zekâya Bir Bakış

Öz

Örtük zekâ teorileri, bireylerin zekanın doğası, yapısı ve gelişimi hakkındaki anlayış veya varsayımlarını yansıtan inanç sistemleridir. Genellikle bilinçdışı olduğu düşünülen bu inançlar, zihinsel faaliyetlerle ilgili bağlamlarda insanların tutumlarını, davranışlarını ve zorluklar karşısında verdikleri tepkileri etkilemektedir. Bu araştırmanın amacı, bireylerin kişiliğinde ve akademik yaşamında rol oynadığı düşünülen örtük zekâ teorilerine ilişkin ortaokul öğretmenlerinin deneyimlerini anlamaktır. Bu bakımdan araştırma, öğretmenlerin sabit zihniyet ve gelişim zihniyeti kavramlarına nasıl yaklaştıklarını açıklamayı ve benimsedikleri düşünce tarzlarının öğretim faaliyetlerini gerçekleştirirken bilişsel yapılarına, akademik niteliklerine ve uygulamalarına nasıl yansıdığını keşfetmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Araştırmada fenomenolojik araştırma deseni kullanılmıştır. Çalışma grubu, 2021-2022 eğitim-öğretim yılında Ordu il merkezi ve ilçe devlet ortaokullarında görev yapan yedi farklı branştan 25 öğretmenden oluşmaktadır. Araştırma verileri yarı yapılandırılmış görüşme formu ile toplanmış ve veriler içerik analizi yaklaşımı ile beş temel aşamada analiz edilmiştir. Bulgular, öğretmenlerin zekâ hakkındaki örtük inançlarının öğretim alanlarına bağlı olarak farklılaşabileceğini ve bu inançların eğitim yaklaşımlarını etkileyebileceğini ortaya koymaktadır. Ayrıca, öğretmenlerin derslerinde genellikle sabit zihniyetlere hizmet eden deneyimler yaşadıklarını, zihniyetlerin kökeninin eğitim politikalarına (öğretim programlarına), ebeveynlerin eğitim ve öğrenmeye yönelik tutumlarına, okul iklimi ve öğretmenlere bağlı olduğunu göstermektedir. Sonuçlar, öğretmen zihniyetlerinin olası eğitim çıktılarını açıklayan bir çerçevede tartışılmıştır. Bu bağlamda, hizmetiçi öğretmen eğitimi programlarında örtük zekâ teorilerine yönelik düzenlemeler yapılması, öğretmenlerin zekâya ilişkin örtük inançlarının daha somut bir şekilde anlaşılması için kapsamlı ve derinlemesine araştırmalar yürütülmesi ve bu araştırmaların öğretmenlerin yanı sıra eğitimin diğer paydaşları olan öğrenciler, ebeveynler ve okul liderlerini de kapsayacak şekilde genişletilmesi için üç temel öneride bulunulmuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• gelişim zihniyeti
• öğretmen inançları
• örtük zekâ teorileri
• sabit zihniyet
• zekânın doğası

Kaynakça

1. Allen, G. E. (2012). Nature versus nurture. R. Chadwick (Ed.), Encyclopedia of applied ethics içinde (ss. 197-207). Elsevier.
2. Anderson, M. (2012). The struggle for collective leadership: Thinking and practice in a multi-campus school setting. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 40(3), 328-342. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143212436955
3. Aragón, O. R., Eddy, S. L., & Graham, M. J. (2018). Faculty beliefs about ıntelligence are related to the adoption of active-learning practices. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 17(3). https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.17-05-0084
4. Asbury, K., & Plomin, R. (2014). G is for genes: The impact of genetics on education and achievement. Wiley-Blackwell.
5. Ashworth, P. & Lucas, U. (2000). Achieving empathy and engagement: A practical approach to the design, conduct and reporting of phenomenographic research. Stud. High. Educ. 25, 295-308. https://doi.org/10.1080/713696153
6. Kong A., Thorleifsson G., Frigge M.L., Vilhjalmsson B.J., Young A.I. & Thorgeirsson T.E. Benonisdottir, S., Oddsson, A., Halldorsson, B. V., Masson, G., Gudbjartsson, D. F., Helgason, A., Bjornsdottir, G., Thorsteinsdottir, U. & Stefansson, K. (2018). The nature of nurture: Effects of parental genotypes. Science, 359, 424-428. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aan6877
7. Bee, H. & Boyd, D. (2010). The developing child (12th ed.). Allyn & Bacon
8. Bejjani, C., DePasque, S., & Tricomi, E. (2019). Intelligence mindset shapes neural learning signals and memory. Biological Psychology, 146, 107715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2019.06.003

9. Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1916). The development of intelligence in children. Williams & Wilkins.
10. Blackwell, L., K. Trzesniewski & C. Dweck (2007). Implicit theories of intelligence predict achievement across an adolescent transition: A longitudinal study and an intervention. Child Development, 78(1), 246-263. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x.
11. Boaler, J. (2019). Limitless mind: Learn, lead, and live without barriers. HarperOne
12. Bogdan, R. & Biklen, S. (2007). Qualitative research for education: An introduction to theory and practice (5th ed.). Pearson Education.
13. Bruning, R. H., Schraw, G. J., & Norby, M. M. (2011). Cognitive psychology and instruction (5th ed.). Pearson.
14. Burnette, J. L., O’Boyle, E. H., VanEpps, E. M., Pollack, J. M., & Finkel, E. J. (2013). Mind-sets matter: A meta-analytic review of implicit theories and self-regulation. Psychological Bulletin, 139(3), 655-701. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/a0029531
15. Butler, R. (2000). Making judgments about ability: The role of implicit theories of ability in moderating inferences from temporal and social comparison information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(5), 965-978. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.78.5.965
16. Caniëls, M.C.J., Semeijn, J.H. & Renders, I. H. M. (2018), Mind the mindset! The interaction of proactive personality, transformational leadership and growth mindset for engagement at work. Career Development International, 23(1), 48-66. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-11-2016-0194
17. Carey, S. (2009). The origin of concepts. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195367638.001.0001
18. Carr, P. B., Rattan, A., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). Implicit theories shape intergroup relations. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 127-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394286-9.00003-2
19. Carr, P.B. & Dweck, C.S. (2011). Intelligence and motivation. R.J. Sternberg & S.B. Kaufman (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Intelligence içinde (ss. 748-70). Cambridge University Press.
20. Cattell, R. B. (1963). Theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence: A critical experiment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 54(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0046743
21. Ceci, S. (1996). On intelligence: A biological treatise on intellectual development, expanded edition. Harvard University Press.
22. Chase, M. A. (2010). Should coaches believe in innate ability? The importance of leadership mindset. Quest, 62(3), 296-307. https://doi.org/10.1080/00336297.2010.10483650
23. Chen, P., Ellsworth, P.C. & Schwarz, N. (2015). Finding a fit or developing it: Implicit theories about achieving passion for work. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(10), 1411-1424. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167215596988
24. Choi, J. K., & Kim, S. C. (2007). Environmental effects on gene expression phenotype have regional biases in the human genome. Genetics, 175(4), 1607-1613. https://doi.org/10.1534/genetics.106.069047
25. Costa, A., & Faria, L. (2018). Implicit theories of intelligence and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 829. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00829
26. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). SAGE.
27. Creswell, J. W. (2016). 30 Essential skills for the qualitative researcher. SAGE.
28. Da Fonseca, D., Cury, F., Bailly, D., & Rufo, M. (2004). Rôle des théories implicites de l’intelligence chez les élèves en situation d’apprentissage. L’Encéphale, 30(5), 456–463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-7006(04)95460-7
29. Dahlin, B. (2007). Enriching the theoretical horizons of phenomenography, variation theory and learning studies. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 51(4), 327-346. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313830701485437
30. Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Constructing 21st-century teacher education. Journal of Teacher Education, 57(3), 300-314.
31. Darling-Hammond, L., Hyler, M. E. & Gardner, M. (2017). Effective teacher professional development. Learning Policy Institute.
32. Davis H. A., Andrzejewski C. E. (2009). Teacher beliefs. E. Anderman & L. H. Anderaman (Eds.), Psychology of classroom learning: An encyclopedia içinde (ss. 909-915). Macmillan Reference.
33. Dayal S. (2023). Online education and its effect on teachers during COVID-19-A case study from India. PloS one, 18(3), e0282287. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0282287
34. De Kraker-Pauw, E., Van Wesel, F., Krabbendam, L., & Van Atteveldt, N. (2017). Teacher mindsets concerning the malleability of intelligence and the appraisal of achievement in the context of feedback. Frontiers in Psychology, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01594
35. DeBacker, T. K., Heddy, B. C., Kershen, J. L., Crowson, H. M., Looney, K., & Goldman, J. A. (2018). Effects of a one-shot growth mindset intervention on beliefs about intelligence and achievement goals. Educational Psychology, 38(6), 711-733. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2018.1426833
36. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2005). The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed.). Sage Publications.
37. Detterman, D. K. (2016). Education and intelligence: Pity the poor teacher because student characteristics are more significant than teachers or schools. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 19. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2016.88
38. Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959-964. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1204529
39. Donohoe, C., Topping, K., & Hannah, E. (2012). The impact of an online intervention (Brainology) on the mindset and resiliency of secondary school pupils: a preliminary mixed methods study. Educational Psychology, 32(5), 641–655. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1080/01443410.2012.675646
40. Dweck, C. (2016). What having a growth mindset actually means. Harvard Business Review, https://hbr.org/2016/01/what-having-a-growth-mindset-actually-means adresinden 20.06.2023 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
41. Dweck, C. S. (1975). The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned helplessness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31(4), 674-685. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0077149
42. Dweck, C. S. (1999a). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality, and development. Psychology Press.
43. Dweck, C. S. (1999b). Caution-praise can be dangerous. American Educator, 23(1), 4-9. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ587014 adresinden 20.06.2023 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
44. Dweck, C. S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. Random House.
45. Dweck, C. S. (2012). Implicit theories. P. A. M. Van Lange, A. W. Kruglanski, & E. T. Higgins (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology içinde (pp. 43-61). Sage Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249222.n28
46. Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). A social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256-273. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.95.2.256
47. Dweck, C. S., & Molden, D. C. (2017). Mindsets: Their impact on competence motivation and acquisition. A. J. Elliot, C. S. Dweck, & D. S. Yeager (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application içinde (pp. 135-154). The Guilford Press.
48. Elkind, D. & Dönmez, A. (2019). Erik Erikson: İnsanda gelişimin sekiz evresi. Ankara University Journal of Faculty of Educational Sciences (JFES), 12(1), 27-38. https://doi.org/10.1501/Egifak_0000000613
49. Erickson, F., & Schultz, J. (1981). When is context? Some issues and methods in the analysis of social competence. J. Green & C. Wallat (Eds.), Erhnography and language in educationul sertings içinde (pp. 147-160). Ablex.
50. Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and society. Norton & Company.
51. Erikson, E. H. (1963). Youth: Change and challenge. Basic boks
52. Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. Norton.
53. Erikson, E. H., Erikson, J. M., & Kivnick, H. Q. (1989). Vital involvement in old age. Norton & Company.
54. Ferrare, J. J. (2019). A multi-ınstitutional analysis of ınstructional beliefs and practices in gateway courses to the sciences. CBE-Life Sciences Education, 18(2). https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.17-12-0257
55. Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social cognition (2nd ed.). Mcgraw-Hill Book Company.
56. Furnham, A. (2014). Increasing your intelligence: Entity and incremental beliefs about the multiple intelligences. Learning and Individual Differences, 32, 163–167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.03.001
57. Gardner, H. (2011) Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. Basic Books.
58. Giorgi, A., & Giorgi, B. (2003). Phenomenology. J. A. Smith (Ed.), Qualitative psychology: A practical guide to research methods içinde (pp. 25–50). Sage Publications, Inc.
59. Giroux H (2021) Critical pedagogy. U. Bauer, U. H. Bittlingmayer & A. Scherr (Eds.), Handbuch Bildungs-und Erziehungssoziologie içinde (ss. 1-16). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-31395-1_19-1.
60. Giroux, H. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward a critical pedagogy of learning. Bergin & Garvey.
61. Glesne, C., & Peshkin. (1992). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction. Longman.
62. Godwin, K. E., Kaur, F., & Sonnenschein, S. (2023). Teaching and Learning during a Global Pandemic: Perspectives from Elementary School Teachers and Parents. Education Sciences, 13(4), 426. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13040426
63. Gottlieb, G. (1998). Normally occurring environmental and behavioral influences on gene activity: From central dogma to probabilistic epigenesis. Psychological Review, 105(4), 792-802. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033- 295X.105.4.792-802
64. Greifeneder, R., Bless, H. & Fiedler, K. (2018). What is social cognition research about? Social cognition: How individuals construct social reality (2nd ed.) içinde (ss. 1-16). Psychology https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315648156
65. Gunderson, E. A., Gripshover, S. J., Romero, C., Dweck, C. S., Goldin-Meadow, S., & Levine, S. C. (2013). Parent praise to 1- to 3-year-olds predicts children’s motivational frameworks 5 years later. Child Development, 84(5), 1526-1541. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12064
66. Gutshall, C. (2016). Student perceptions of teachers’ mindset beliefs in the classroom setting. Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology, Canadian Center of Science and Education, 6(2), 135-135. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jedp.v6n2p135
67. Gutshall, C. A. (2013). Teachers’ mindsets for students with and without disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 50, 1073-1083. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21725
68. Hattie, J. A. C. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. Routledge
69. Hattie, J. A.C. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge.
70. Heckhausen, H., & Rheinberg, F. (1980). Lernmotivation im Unterricht, erneut betrachtet [Learning motivation in the classroom reconsidered]. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 8, 7–47. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288407997_Lernmotivation_im_Unterricht_erneut_betrachtet adresinden 20.06. 2023 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
71. Hertel, S., & Karlen, Y. (2020). Implicit theories of self‐regulated learning: Interplay with students’ achievement goals, learning strategies, and metacognition. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3), 972-996. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12402
72. Hokoda, A., & Fincham, F. D. (1995). Origins of children’s helpless and mastery achievement patterns in the family. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(3), 375-385. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.87.3.375
73. Hong, Y., Chiu, C., & Dweck, C. S. (1995). Implicit theories of intelligence: Reconsidering the role of confidence in achievement motivation. M. H. Kernis (Ed.), Efficacy, agency, and self-esteem. Plenum series in social/clinical psychology içinde (ss. 197-216). Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1280-0_10
74. Hsieh P. H. (2011) Mastery Orientation. Goldstein S. & Naglieri J.A. (Eds.) Encyclopedia of child behavior and development içinde (ss. 915-916). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_1722
75. Inbar-Furst, H., & Gumpel, T. P. (2015). Factors affecting female teachers’ attitudes toward help-seeking or help-avoıdance in coping with behavioral problems. Psychology in the Schools, 52(9), 906-922. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21868
76. Janesick, V. J. (2015). Peer debriefing. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosp014.pub2
77. Johnson, L. E. & Litchfield K. A. (2011) Nature vs. nurture. S. Goldstein & J. A. Naglieri (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development içinde (ss. 993-994). Springer, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_1917
78. Jonsson, A. C., Beach, D., Korp, H., & Erlandson, P. (2012). Teachers’ implicit theories of intelligence: influences from different disciplines and scientific theories. European Journal of Teacher Education, 35(4), 387-400. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2012.662636
79. Kamins, M. L., & Dweck, C. S. (1999). Person versus process praise and criticism: Implications for contingent self-worth and coping. Developmental Psychology, 35(3), 835-847. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.35.3.835
80. Karlen, Y., Hirt, C. N., Liska, A. & Stebner, F. (2021). Mindsets and self-concepts about self-regulated learning: Their relationships with emotions, strategy knowledge, and academic achievement. Front. Psychol. 12 (661142). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.661142
81. Koelsch, L. E. (2013). Reconceptualizing the member check interview. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 12(1), 168-179. https://doi.org/10.1177/160940691301200105
82. Kroeper, K. M., Muenks, K., Canning, E. A., & Murphy, M. C. (2022a). An exploratory study of the behaviors that communicate perceived instructor mindset beliefs in college stem classrooms. Teaching and Teacher Education, 114, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103717
83. Kroeper, K.M., Fried, A.C. & Murphy, M.C. (2022b). Towards fostering growth mindset classrooms: identifying teaching behaviors that signal instructors’ fixed and growth mindsets beliefs to students. Soc Psychol Educ, 25, 371-398. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-022-09689-4
84. Leroy, N., Bressoux, P., Sarrazin, P. & Trouilloud, D. (2007). Impact of teachers’ implicit theories and perceived pressures on the establishment of an autonomy supportive climate. Eur J Psychol Educ, 22(4), 529-545 https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173470
85. Levi-Strauss, C. (2016). Irk, tarih, kültür (7. Basım). Metis Yayınları.
86. Lincoln, Y. S. & Guba, E. (1985) Naturalistic inquiry. Sage
87. Liu, W. C. (2021) Implicit Theories of intelligence and achievement goals: A look at students’ İntrinsic motivation and achievement in mathematics. Front. Psychol. 12: 593715. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.593715
88. Martin, A.J., Bostwick K., Collie R.J. & Tarbetsky A.L. (2020) Implicit theories of intelligence. Zeigler-Hill V., Shackelford T. (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences içinde (ss. 1-7). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-28099-8_980-1
89. Marton, F. (1986). Phenomenography-A research approach to investigating different understandings of reality. Journal of Thought, 21(3), 28-49. https://www.jstor.org/stable/42589189 adresinden 20.06.2023 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
90. Matthes, B., & Stoeger, H. (2018). Influence of parents’ implicit theories about ability on parents’ learning-related behaviors, children’s implicit theories, and children’s academic achievement. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 271-280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.07.001
91. Maxwell, J.A. (2013). Qualitative research design. An interactive approach (3rd ed.). SAGE.
92. McGue, M. (1989). Nature-nurture and intelligence. Nature, 340, 507-508. https://doi.org/10.1038/340507a0
93. Mesler, R. M., Corbin, C. M., & Martin, B. H. (2021). Teacher mindset is associated with development of students’ growth mindset. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 76, 101299. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1016/j.appdev.2021.101299
94. Mueller, C. M., & Dweck, C. S. (1998). Praise for intelligence can undermine children’s motivation and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75(1), 33–52. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.75.1.33
95. Muenks, K., Canning, E. A., LaCosse, J., Green, D. J., Zirkel, S., Garcia, J. A., & Murphy, M. C. (2020). Does my professor think my ability can change? Students’ perceptions of their STEM professors’ mindset beliefs predict their psychological vulnerability, engagement, and performance in class. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 149(11), 2119-2144 https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000763
96. Nalipay, M. J. N., Mordeno, I. G., Semilla, J. B., & Frondozo, C. E. (2019). Implicit beliefs about teaching ability, teacher emotions, and teaching satisfaction. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 28,313-325. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-019-00467-z
97. National Research Council. (2000) How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school (Expanded edition). The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/9853
98. Ng, B. (2018). The neuroscience of growth mindset and intrinsic motivation. Brain Sciences, 8(2), 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci8020020
99. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Fredrickson, B., Loftus, G. & Wagenaar (2009). Atkinson and Hilgard’s introduction to psychology (15th ed.). Wadsworth Publishing.
100. OECD. (2019a). PISA 2018 results (Volume III): What school life means for students’ lives. OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/acd78851-en
101. OECD. (2019b). OECD Future of education and skills 2030: OECD Learning compass 2030. OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/teaching-and-learning/learning/learning-compass- 2030/OECD_Learning_Compass_2030_Concept_Note_Series.pdf adresinden 20.06.2023 tarihinde erişildi.
102. Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teachers’ beliefs and educational research: cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307- 332 https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543062003307
103. Patterson, M. M., Kravchenko, N., Chen-Bouck, L., & Kelley, J. A. (2016). General and domain-specific beliefs about intelligence, ability, and effort among preservice and practicing teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 59, 180-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.06.004
104. Paunesku, D., Walton, G. M., Romero, C., Smith, E. N., Yeager, D. S., & Dweck, C. S. (2015). Mind-Set Interventions Are a Scalable Treatment for Academic Underachievement. Psychological Science, 26(6), 78-793. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615571017
105. Piaget, J. (1950). The psychology of intelligence. Routledge.
106. Plaks, J. E. (2017). Implicit theories: Assumptions that shape social and moral cognition. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 259-310. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2017.02.003
107. Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., & Fulker, D. W. (2006). Nature and nurture during infancy and early childhood. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527654
108. Pomerantz, E. M., Ng, F. F.-Y., & Wang, Q. (2006). Mothers’ mastery-oriented involvement in children’s homework: Implications for the well-being of children with negative perceptions of competence. Journal of Educational Psychology, 98(1), 99-111. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.98.1.99
109. Porter, T., Catalán Molina, D., Cimpian, A., Roberts, S., Fredericks, A., Blackwell, L. S., & Trzesniewski, K. (2022). Growth-Mindset Intervention Delivered by Teachers Boosts Achievement in Early Adolescence. Psychological Science, 33(7), 1086-1096. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211061109
110. Rattan, A., Good, C., & Dweck, C. S. (2012). It’s ok-Not everyone can be good at math: Instructors with an entity theory comfort (and demotivate) students. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(3), 731-737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.12.012
111. Rechsteiner, B. Compagnoni, M., Wullschleger, A. & Maag Merki, K. (2021). Teachers’ implicit theories of professional abilities in the domain of school improvement. Front. Educ. 6:635473. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.635473
112. Rheinberg, F. (1980). Leistungsbewertung und Lernmotivation. Gottingen: Hogrefe. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301626088_Leistungsbewertung_und_Lernmotivation adresinden 20.06.2023 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
113. Rissanen, I., Kuusisto, E., Hanhimäki, E., & Tirri, K. (2016). Teachers’ implicit meaning systems and their implications for pedagogical thinking and practice: A case study from Finland. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 62(4), 487-500. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2016.1258667
114. Ronkainen, R., Kuusisto, E., & Tirri, K. (2019). Growth mindset in teaching: A case study of a Finnish elementary school teacher. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(8), 141-154. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.8.9
115. Ross, M. (1989). Relation of implicit theories to the construction of personal histories. Psychological Review, 96(2), 341-357. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.96.2.341
116. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
117. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806
118. Sahlberg, P. (2018). Eğitimde Finlandiya modeli: Küçük bir kuzey ülkesini eğitimde zirveye taşıyan temel ilkeler ve uygulamalar. Metropolis yayıncılık.
119. Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R., Baldwin, A., & Baldwin, C. (1993). Stability of intelligence from preschool to adolescence: The influence of social and family risk factors. Child Development, 64(1), 80. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131438
120. Santrock, J. W. (2011). Educational psychology. McGraw-Hill.
121. Schmidt, J. A., Shumow, L., & Kackar-Cam, H. (2015). Exploring teacher effects for mindset intervention outcomes in seventh-grade science classes. Middle Grades Research Journal, 10, 17-32. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1144361 adresinden 20.06.2023 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
122. Schraw, G. & Moshman, D. (1995). Metacognitive theories. Educational Psychology Review 7(4), 351-371. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1007/BF02212307
123. Schunk, D. H. (2011). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Pearson.
124. Schunk, D., Meece, J. & Pintrich, P. (2014). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and applications (4th ed.). Pearson Education Limited.
125. Seaton, F. S. (2017). Empowering teachers to implement a growth mindset. Educational Psychology in Practice, 34(1), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1080/02667363.2017.1382333
126. Selvi, A. F. (2020). Qualitative content analysis. J. McKinley & H. Rose (Eds.), The routledge handbook of research methods in applied linguistics içinde (ss. 440-452). Routledge.
127. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.17763/haer.57.1.j463w79r56455411
128. Shute, V. J. (2008). Focus on formative feedback. Review of Educational Research, 78(1), 153-189. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654307313795
129. Sorrenti, L., Filippello, P., Buzzai, C., Buttò, C., & Costa, S. (2017). Learned helplessness and mastery orientation: The contribution of personality traits and academic beliefs. Nordic Psychology, 70(1), 71-84. https://doi.org/10.1080/19012276.2017.1339625
130. Spearman, C. (1904). General intelligence, objectively determined and measured. The American Journal of Psychology, 15(2), 201-292. https://doi.org/10.2307/1412107
131. Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of human intelligence. Cambridge University Press.
132. Suarez, V. & McGrath, J. (2022). Teacher professional identity: How to develop and support it in times of change. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 267, OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/b19f5af7-en.
133. Tan, D., Yough, M., Desmet, O. A., & Pereira, N. (2019). Middle school students’ beliefs about intelligence and giftedness. Journal of Advanced Academics, 30(1), 50-73. https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X18809360
134. van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience: Human science for an action sensitive pedagogy. State University of New York Press.
135. Villegas-Reimers, E. (2003). Teacher professional development: An international review of the literature. International Institute for Educational Planning Publisher: UNESCO. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000133010 adresinden 20.06.2023 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
136. Vosniadou, S., & Mason, L. (2012). Conceptual change induced by instruction: A complex interplay of multiple factors. K. R. Harris, S. Graham, T. Urdan, S. Graham, J. M. Royer, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), APA educational psychology handbook, Vol. 2. Individual differences and cultural and contextual factors içinde (ss. 221-246). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/13274-009
137. Weintraub, S., Dikmen, S. S., Heaton, R. K., Tulsky, D. S., Zelazo, P. D., Bauer, P. J., … Gershon, R. C. (2013). Cognition assessment using the NIH Toolbox. Neurology, 80(11). 54-S64. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1212/WNL.0b013e3182872ded
138. Wolters, C. A. (2004). Advancing achievement goal theory: Using goal structures and goal orientations to predict students’ motivation, cognition, and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96(2), 236-250. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.2.236
139. Wood, R., & Bandura, A. (1989). Impact of conceptions of ability on self-regulatory mechanisms and complex decision-making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 407-415. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.3.407
140. World Bank. (2018). World development report 2018: Learning to realize education’s promise. World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/wdr2018 adresinden 20. 06. 2023 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
141. Yeager, D. S., Carroll, J. M., Buontempo, J., Cimpian, A., Woody, S., Crosnoe, R., Muller, C., Murray, J., Mhatre, P., Kersting, N., Hulleman, C., Kudym, M., Murphy, M., Duckworth, A. L., Walton, G. M., & Dweck, C. S. (2022). Teacher mindsets help explain where a growth-mindset intervention does and doesn’t work. Psychological Science, 33(1), 18-32. https://doi.org/10.1177/09567976211028984
142. Yıldırım, A. ve Şimşek, H. (2016). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (Genişletilmiş 10. Baskı). Seçkin Yayıncılık.
143. Yu, J., Kreijkes, P. & Salmela-Aro, K. (2022). Students’ growth mindset: Relation to teacher beliefs, teaching practices, and school climate. Learning and Instruction, 80. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101616
144. Zahle, J. (2023). Reactivity and good data in qualitative data collection. Euro Jnl Phil Sci, 13(10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13194-023-00514-z
145. Zheng, H. (2013). Teachers’ beliefs and practices: A dynamic and complex relationship. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 41(3), 331-343. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359866X.2013.809051