Social Constraints Among Bereaving Turkish Adults: Testing The Construct And Convergent Validity And Relıability of the Social Constraints Scale (Scs)

Öz

Recent studies revealed the significance of social support on human functioning and well-being, and also the adverse effect of social constraints and lack of support. Especially after negative life events such as loss of a loved one, individuals search for support and when not found, adaptation becomes problematic. Thus, measuring and monitoring the perceptions of social constraints is important as well as the social support. This study aimed to conduct the initial reliability and validity analyses of the Social Constraints Scale (SCS) in a Turkish population. SCS and Two-Track Bereavement Questionnaire (TTBQ) were administered to 323 bereaved individuals (222 females and 101 males) with a mean age of 35.31 (SD = 14.63). Relational active grieving (RAG) and biopsychosocial functioning subscales of TTBQ were used to test the criterion-related validity of the SCS. Results suggested that SCS had good reliability and validity results, and had significant positive correlations with both RAG and biopsychosocial functioning. Moreover, according to the results, when the bereaved perceive more social constraints, they also have more problems with functioning and maladaptive grieving. Results of the initial construct validity, criterion-related validity and internal consistency tests showed that, the Turkish SCS is a valid and reliable scale.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Social constraints scale,bereavement,validity,reliability

Kaynakça

1. Agustsdottir, S., Kristinsdottir, A., Jonsdottir, K., Larusdottir, S. O., Smari, J., & Valdimarsdottir, H. B. (2010). The impact of dispositional emotion expressivity and social constraints on distress among prostate cancer patients in Iceland. British Journal of Health Psychology, 15, 51-61. doi: 10.1348/135910709X426148.
2. Ayaz, T., Karancı, N., & Aker, A. T. (2014). İki boyutlu yas ölçeğinin Türkçe formunun geçerlilik ve güvenirlilik çalışması [The reliability and validity studies of the Turkish version of Two Track Model of Bereavement Questionnaire]. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi [Turkish Journal of Psychiatry], 25(4), 253-263. Retrieved from http://www.turkpsikiyatri.com/en/default.aspx?modul=article&id=958.
3. Bischof, L. J. (1976). Adult psychology. New York: Harper & Row.
4. Bolak-Boratav, H., Sunar, D., & Ataca, B. (2011). Duyguları sergileme kuralları ve bağlamsal belirleyicileri: Türkiye’de üniversite öğrencileri ile yapılan bir araştırma [Emotional display rules and their contextual determinants: An investigation with university students in Turkey]. Turkish Journal of Psychology, 26(68), 90-103. Retrieved from http://www.turkpsikolojiyazilari.com/PDF/TPD/68/06.pdf.
5. Braitman, A. L., Derlega, V. J., Henson, J. M., Robinett, I., Saadeh, G. M., Janda, L. J., Hixon, M., & Miranda, J. (2008). Social constraints in talking about diabetes to significant others and diabetes self-care: A social-cognitive processing perspective. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 27(9), 949-969. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2008.27.9.949.
6. Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen, & J. S. Long (Eds.) Testing Structural Equation Models (pp. 136-162). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
7. Clark, L. F. (1993). Stress and the cognitive-conversational benefits of social interaction. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 12(1), 25-55. doi: 10.1521/jscp.1993.12.1.25
8. Eton, D. T., Lepore, S. J., & Helgeson, V. S. (2001). Early quality of life in patients with localized prostate carcinoma: An examination of treatment-related, demographic, and psychosocial factors. Cancer, 92(6), 1451-1459. Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2610318/.

9. Eton, D. T., Lepore, S. J., & Helgeson, V. S. (2005). Psychological distress in spouses of men treated for early-stage prostate carcinoma. Cancer, 103(11), 2412-2418. doi: 10.1002/cncr.21092.
10. Farberow, N. L., Gallagher-Thompson, D., Gilewski, M., & Thompson, L. (1992). The role of social supports in the bereavement process of surviving spouses of suicide and natural deaths. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 22(1), 107-124. doi: 10.1111/j.1943-278X.1992.tb00479.x.
11. Fry, P. S. (2001). Predictors of health-related quality of life perspectives, self-esteem, and life satisfactions of older adults following spousal loss: An 18-month follow-up study of widows and widowers. The Gerontologist, 41(6), 787-798. doi: 10.1093/geront/41.6.787.
12. Groff, E. C. (2014). The relationship between social constraints, social support, loss-related factors, depression, and PTSD in a treatment-seeking suicide bereaved sample (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Retrieved from http://gradworks.umi.com/37/ 37/3737784. Html.
13. Henson, J. M., Derlega, V. J., Pearson, M. R., Ferrer, R., & Holmes, K. (2013). African American students’ responses to racial discrimination: How race-based rejection sensitivity and social constraints are related to psychological reactions. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 32(5), 504-529. doi: 10.1521/jscp.2013.32.5.504.
14. Hu, L. T., & Bentler, T. M. (1999). Cut off criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6, 1-55. doi: 10.1080/10705519909540118.
15. Huang, C. C., Wang, Y. M., Wu, T. W., & Wang, P. A. (2013). An empirical analysis of the antecedents and performance consequences of using the Moodle platform. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 3(2), 217-221. doi: 10.7763/IJIET.2013.V3.267.
16. Hunter, K. (2007). “Sleep on dear Ernie, your battles are o’er”: A glimpse of a mourning community, Invercargill, New Zealand, 1914-1925. War in History, 14(1), 36-62. doi: 10.1177/0968344507071040.
17. International Test Commission. (2010). The ITC guidelines for translating and adapting tests. Retrieved from http://www.psyktestbarn.no/cms/ptb_mm.nsf/lupgraphics/ ITC%20guidelines.pdf/$file/ITC%20guidelines.pdf.
18. Jöreskog, K. G., & Sörbom, D. (1996). LISREL 8 User's reference guide. Chicago: Scientific Software.
19. Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. New York: The Guildford Press.
20. Koutrouli, N., Anagnostopoulos, F., Tsikkinis, A., Papastylianou, D., & Lepore, S. (2015). Psychometric properties of the Greek version of the Social Constraints Scale in a sample of women with breast cancer. Women & Health, 23, 1-15. doi: 10.1080/03630242.2015.1101746.
21. Lepore, S. J. (1992). Social conflict, social support, and psychological distress: Evidence of cross-domain buffering effects. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63(5), 857867. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.63.5.857. Lepore, S. J. (2001). A social-cognitive processing model of emotional adjustment to cancer. In A. Baum & B. Anderson (Eds.), Psychosocial Interventions for Cancer (pp. 99- 118). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
22. Lepore, S. J. (2003, November 1). Social constraints construct & measurement. Retrieved from http://www.ibrarian.net/navon/paper/Social_Constraints_Construct___Measure ment. pdf?paperid=1814194.
23. Lepore, S. J., Fernandez-Berrocal, P., Ragan, J., & Ramos, N. (2004). It’s not that bad: Social challenges to emotional disclosure enhance adjustment to stress. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 17(4), 341-361. doi: 10.1080/10615800412331318625.
24. Lepore, S. J., & Ituarte, P. H. G. (1999). Optimism about cancer enhances mood by reducing negative social relations. Cancer Research Therapy and Control, 8(1-2), 165-174. Retrieved from http://astro.temple.edu/~slepore/Lepore_CRTC_Itu_1999.
25. Lepore, S. J., Ragan, J. D., & Jones, S. (2000). Talking facilitates cognitive-emotional processes of adaptation to an acute stressor. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78(3), 499-508. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.78.3.499.
26. Lepore, S. J., Silver, R. C., Wortman, C. B., & Wayment, H. A. (1996). Social constraints, intrusive thoughts, and depressive symptoms among bereaved mothers. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 271-282. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.70.2.271.
27. Lewis, R. J., Derlega, V. J., Clarke, E. G., & Kuang, J. C. (2006). Stigma consciousness, social constraints, and lesbian well-being. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 48-56. doi: 10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.48.
28. Lindinger-Sternart, S. (2015). Help-seeking behaviors of men for mental health and the impact of diverse cultural backgrounds. International Journal of Social Science Studies, 3(1), 1-6. doi: 10.11114/ijsss.v3il.519.
29. Lubben, J. E. (1988). Assessing social networks among elderly populations. Family & Community Health, 11(3), 42-52. doi: 10.1097/00003727-198811000-00008.
30. MacCallum, R. C., Browne, M. W., & Sugawara, H. M. (1996). Power analysis and determination of sample size for covariance structure modeling. Psychological Methods, 1(2), 130-149. doi: 10.1037/1082-989X.1.2.130.
31. Mackenzie, C. S., Scott, T., Mather, A., & Sareen, J. (2008). Older adults' help-seeking attitudes and treatment beliefs concerning mental health problems. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 16(12), 1010-1019. doi: 10.1097/JGP.0b013e31818cd3be.
32. McGloshen, T. H., & O’Bryant, S. L. (1988). The psychological well-being of older, recent widows. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 12, 99-116. doi: 10.1111/j.1471-6402.1988.tb00930.x.
33. Mojaverian, T., Hashimoto, T., & Kim, H. S. (2013). Cultural differences in professional help seeking: A comparison of Japan and the US. Frontiers in Psychology, 3:615. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00615.
34. Nagel, J. K. (1988). Unresolved grief and mourning in Navajo women. American Indian and Alaska Native Mental Health Research, 2(2), 32-40. doi: 10.5820/aian.0202.1988.32.
35. Nordanger, D. (2007). Discourses of loss and bereavement in Tigray, Ethiopia. Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 31, 173-194. doi: 10.1007/s11013-007-9050-6.
36. Oliver, M. I., Pearson, N., Coe, N., & Gunnell, D. (2005) Help-seeking behavior in men and women with common mental health problems: Cross-sectional study. British Journal of Psychiatry, 186, 297-301. doi: 10.1192/bjp.186.4.297.
37. Ono, Y., Araki, N., Mitani, M., & Yoshimura, K. (1999). Help-seeking behavior across different age and culture groups. In Y. Ono, A. Janca, M. Asai, & N. Sartorius (Eds.), Somatoform Disorders: A Worldwide Perspective (pp. 132-140). Tokyo: Springer-Verlag. doi: 10.1007/978-4-431-68500-5_13.
38. Pennebaker, J. W., & Harber, K. D. (1993). A social stage model of collective coping: The Loma Prieta Earthquake and the Persian Gulf War. Journal of Social Issues, 49(4), 125-145. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1993.tb01184.x.
39. Pressman, D. L., & Bonanno, G. A. (2007). With whom do we grieve? Social and cultural determinants of grief processing in the United States and China. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24(5), 729-746. doi: 10.1177/0265407507081458.
40. Riley, L. P., LaMontage, L. L., Hepworth, J. T., & Murphy, B. A. (2007). Parental grief responses and personal growth following the death of a child. Death Studies, 31, 277-299. doi: 10.1080/07481180601152591.
41. Rime, B., Mesquita, B., Philippot, P., & Boca, S. (1991). Beyond the emotional event: Six studies on the social sharing of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 5(5/6), 435-465. doi: 10.1080/02699939108411052.
42. Rubin, S. S., Bar-Nadav, O., Malkinson, R., Koren, D., Goffer-Shnarch, M., & Michaeli, E. (2009). The Two-Track Model of Bereavement Questionnaire (TTBQ): Development and validation of a relational measure. Death Studies, 33, 305-333. doi: 10.1080/07481180802705668.
43. Sanders, C. M. (1988). Risk factors in bereavement outcome. Journal of Social Issues, 44(3), 97-111. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1988.tb02079.x.
44. Santrock, J. W. (2011). Life-span development. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
45. Schmidt, J. E. (2002). The role of social and dispositional variables associated with emotional processing in adjustment to breast cancer (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Retrieved from http://uknowledge.uky.edu/gradschool_theses/386.
46. Schumacker, R. E., & Lomax, R. G. (2010). A beginner s guide to structural equation modeling. New York, NY: Routledge.
47. Schuster, T. L., Kessler, R. C., & Aseltine, R. H. (1990). Supportive interactions, negative interactions, and depressed mood. American Journal of Community Psychology, 18(3), 423-438. doi: 10.1007/BF00938116.
48. Sheridan, M. A., Sherman, M. L., Pierce, T., & Compas, B. E. (2010). Social support, social constraints, and affect in spouses of women with breast cancer: The role of cognitive processing. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 27(1), 5-22. doi: 10.1177/0265407509347836.
49. Sousa, V. D., & Rojjanasrirat, W. (2011). Traslation, adaptation and validation of instruments or scales for use in cross-cultural health care research: A clear and user-friendly guideline. Journal of Evaluation in Clinical Practice, 17, 268-274. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2753.2010.01434.x.
50. Stelle, C. D., & Uchida, M. (2004). The stability and change in the social support networks of widowers following spousal bereavement. The Journal of Men’s Studies, 13(1), 85-105. doi: 10.3149/jms.1301.85.
51. Stroebe, M. S., & Schut, H. (1999). The dual process model of coping with bereavement: Rationale and description. Death Studies, 23, 197-224. doi: 10.1080/074811899201046.
52. Stroebe, W., Stroebe, M. S., & Abakoumkin, G. (1999). Does differential social support cause sex differences in bereavement outcome? Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 9, 1-12. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1099-1298(199901/02)9:1<1::AID-CASP478>3.0.CO;2-X.
53. Tunay-Akan, Ş., & Barışkın, E. (2016). Kültür ve cinsiyet bağlamında Berkeley Duygu İfadesi Ölçeğinin geçerlilik ve güvenilirlik ölçütleri [Reliability and validity indicators of Berkeley Expressivity Questionnaire in the context of culture and gender]. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi [Turkish Journal of Psychiatry], 27. doi: 10.5080/u13378.
54. Ullrich, P. M., Lutgendorf, S. K., & Stapleton, J. T. (2002). Social constraints and depression in HIV infection: Effects of sexual orientation and area of residence. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 21(1), 46-65. doi: 10.1521/jscp.21.1.46.22402.
55. Vachon, M. L., & Stylianos, S. K. (1988). The role of social support in bereavement. Journal of Social Issues, 44(3), 175-190. doi: 10.1111/j.1540-4560.1988.tb02084.x.
56. Vaswani, N. (2011). Encouraging help-seeking behavior among young men: A literature review. Report for the Child Protection Committee, Glasgow City Council. Retrieved from http://www.glasgow.gov.uk/chttphandler.ashx?id=5252.
57. You, J., & Lu, Q. (2014). Social constraints and quality of life among Chinese-speaking breast cancer survivors: A mediation model. Quality of Life Research, 23(9), 1-8. doi: 10.1007/s11136-014-0698-4.