Intra-Intergroup Conflicts in Africa: a critical reflection on indigenous and external causal factors

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 2 Sayı: 2, 122 - 141, 31.12.2020

Lukman Adewale Quadrı , Ajibola Oladejo

Öz

This study discerned that prior to colonial intrusion conflicts existed in the African society, but usually in the context of conquest, expansionism or reassertion of supremacy. However, the advent of colonialism feasted on the existing primordial incongruities between ethnic groups; hence, seeded inter-ethnic consciousness as a divide and rule tactics for the advancement of their objectives in the usurped colonies. Following the fall of colonialism, the postcolonial African societies were built on unresolved/hibernated ethnic rivalries, which protruded and remained extant from the Cold War era hitherto. However, this study revealed that ethnic consciousness in Africa, such as that of Nigeria and Kenya, predates colonialism, but was exacerbated by the Cold War gladiators, and the postcolonial African leaders. Therefore, intra-intergroup conflicts in Africa are attributable to endogenous and exogenous factors. Central to the objective of this study is the advocation of mutual coexistence of ethnic groups in heterogenous societies such as Nigeria, Kenya, Ethiopia, Cameroon and other African states. In addition, the need for leaders to narrow horizontal inequalities which is a potential source of ethnoreligious consciousness which is obviously threatful to nation-building project. Frances Stewart (1998) framework of horizontal inequalities was adopted in this study in that it critically explicated how inequalities along primordial lines can be a threat to nation-building in a multicultural society. In addition, the theory of primordialism featured greatly in this study as it explains the inevitabilities of primordial loyalties in multi-ethnic nation-states. The findings of this study, coupled with the substantive frameworks adopted, points to the need that African nations should collate horizontal inequalities data nationally, in a bid to discern whether groups are proportionally represented or not in public offices. In addition, the need to deconstruct colonial constructions, to attenuate catalyst of conflict is sacrosanct to amicable coexistence and nation-building.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Conflict, Colonial and Imperialism, Intergroup conflict, Intragroup conflict, intra-intergroup conflict, Precolonialism, Postcolonialism

Kaynakça

• Bibliography Kohn, M. & Reddy, K., 2017. Colonialism. [Online] Available at: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/colonialism/ [Accessed 2 August 2020].
• Thakore, D. D., 2013. Conflict and Conflict Management. IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM), 8(6), pp. 07-16.
• AHA, 2020. The Colonial and Pre-Colonial Eras in Nigeria. [Online] Available at: https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/through-the-lens-of-history-biafra-nigeria-the-west-and-the-world/the-colonial-and-pre-colonial-eras-in-nigeria [Accessed 2 September 2020].
• Mitchley, A., 2019. Khoisan chief camping at the Union Buildings, says smaller parties are the way to go. [Online] Available at: https://www.news24.com/news24/southafrica/news/khoisan-chief-camping-at-the-union-buildings-says-smaller-parties-are-the-way-to-go-20190428 [Accessed 3 August 2020].
• BAČOVÁ, V., 1998. THE CONSTRUCTION OF NATIONAL IDENTITY ñ ON PRIMORDIALISM AND INSTRUMENTALISM. Human Affairs, 8(1), pp. 29-43.
• Besley, T. & Reynal-Querol, M., 2014. The legacy of historical conflict: evidence from Africa. American Political Science Association, 108(02), pp. 319-336.
• Ogumola, M. C., 2010. A New Perspective to Oyo Empire History. 2nd ed. Oyo: Samuel Ayoade Performed Press.
• Allen, C. R., 2014. SHAKA ZULU’S LINKAGE OF STRATEGY AND TACTICS: AN EARLY FORM OF OPERATIONAL ART?. [Online] Available at: https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a612214.pdf [Accessed 4 September 2020].
• Shittu, O., 2019. THE KIRIJI WAR 1877-1893. [Online] Available at: https://www.letstalkhistory.com.ng/the-kiriji-war-1877-1893/ [Accessed 5 Setember 2020].
• Ogundero, F., Ehimen, O., Araoye, D. & Oladeji, O., 2015. kiriji War: The World’s Longest Civil War by any Ethnic Group (1877-1893). [Online] Available at: https://www.academia.edu/34852543/1461079860_1352266117_1407323081_1198908332_pdf [Accessed 5 September 2020].
• Knispell-U, S., 2019. PRECOLONIAL HISTORY MAY PREDICT CONFLICT IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA. [Online] Available at: https://www.futurity.org/sub-saharan-african-countries-precolonial-states-2099062-2/ [Accessed 5 September 2020].
• Aapenguo, C. M., 2010. Misinterpreting Ethnic Conflicts in Africa. [Online] Available at: https://www.printfriendly.com/p/g/F5BimM [Accessed 6 September 2010].
• Akhaine, S. & Abdulganiyu, A., 2020. Southern Kaduna killings have turned ethnoreligious conflict, says Sultan. [Online] Available at: https://guardian.ng/news/southern-kaduna-killings-have-turned-ethno-religious-conflict-says-sultan/ [Accessed 7 September 2020].
• ICC, 2020. Gunmen Killed 20 People in Eastern Burkina Faso. [Online] Available at: https://www.persecution.org/2020/08/12/gunmen-killed-20-people-eastern-burkina-faso/ [Accessed 7 September 2020].
• CSW, 2020. At least 21 killed in latest attacks in southern Kaduna. [Online] Available at: https://www.csw.org.uk/2020/07/27/press/4748/article.htm [Accessed 7 September 2020].
• Balestrierie, S., 2020. ISLAMIST MILITANTS CONTINUE TO TARGET AND RAZE CHRISTIAN VILLAGES IN THE SAHEL. [Online] Available at: https://sofrep.com/news/islamist-militants-continue-to-target-and-raze-christian-villages-in-the-sahel/ [Accessed 7 September 2020].
• Austin, G., 2010. African Economic Development and Colonial Legacies. International Development Policy | Revue internationale de politique de développement, Volume 1, pp. 11-32..
• Bujra, A., 2002. African Conflicts: Their Causes and Their Political and Social Environment, Addis Ababa: Development Policy Management Forum (DPMF).
• Ewang, A., 2020. Multiple Killings in Nigeria's Kaduna State. [Online] Available at: https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/07/31/multiple-killings-nigerias-kaduna-state [Accessed 9 September 2020].
• Channels Television, 2020. Killings In Southern Kaduna Is ‘Age Long’, Indigenes Dispute Over Crisis. [Online] Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nazELmVeL2g [Accessed 9 September 2020].
• Department for International Development (DFID), 2001. The causes of conflict in Africa, London: Cabinet Sub-Committee on Conflict Prevention in Africa.
• Akhaine, S. & Alabi, A., 2020. Southern Kaduna killings have turned ethnoreligious conflict, says Sultan. [Online] Available at: https://guardian.ng/news/southern-kaduna-killings-have-turned-ethno-religious-conflict-says-sultan/ [Accessed 13 September 2020].
• Uman, E. & Arjiromanus, V., 2019. Nigeria: Killer Herdsmen - That BBC Rating! Story of Sorrow, Tears and Blood Across the Country. [Online] Available at: https://allafrica.com/stories/201907200117.html [Accessed 13 September 2020].
• acaps, 2020. NIGERIA. [Online] Available at: https://www.acaps.org/country/nigeria/crisis/northwest-banditry [Accessed 13 March 2020].
• GTI, 2019. 2019 GLOBAL TERRORISM INDEX MEASURING THE IMPACT OF TERRORISM. [Online] Available at: http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2019/11/GTI-2019web.pdf [Accessed 13 September 2020].
• Demarest, L., Langer, A. & Okiwo, U., 2020. Nigeria’s Federal Character Commission (FCC): a critical appraisal. [Online] Available at: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13600818.2020.1727427 [Accessed 13 September 2020].
• Ezeamalu, B., 2020. Nigeria divided as never before under Buhari – Soyinka. [Online] Available at: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/414809-nigeria-divided-as-never-before-under-buhari-soyinka.html?fbclid=IwAR0ttdb41JK9FadVmLUCMCMs72lV6TQiCm24sDwLMUIPt-221_FRbcZKsVw [Accessed 16 September 2020].
• Iroanusi, Q. E., 2020. Nigeria becoming a failed, divided State – Obasanjo. [Online] Available at: https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/top-news/413986-nigeria-becoming-a-failed-divided-state-obasanjo.html [Accessed 16 September 2020].
• Sahara Reporters, 2020. Buhari Inherited Terribly Divided Country From Jonathan, Presidency Replies Soyinka: Adesina described Nigeria as an inconvenient amalgamation, which has always been divided. [Online] Available at: http://saharareporters.com/2020/09/16/buhari-inherited-terribly-divided-country-jonathan-presidency-replies-soyinka?fbclid=IwAR06UUcTK6sXrcMKc6glqMBnLItnbeya4Jns4unzVPYbY7yBhAPYuPfnPpQ [Accessed 17 September 2020].
• Punch Newspaper Cartoon, 2020. Cartoon Flakes. [Online] Available at: https://www.facebook.com/206270189411151/posts/3566431246728345/ [Accessed 17 Septmber 2020].