Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Experiences of Romani Women in Turkey

Yıl 2015, Cilt: 17 Sayı: 2, 29 - 47, 08.02.2016

Maviş Yıldırım , Dilek Murat , Zeynep Aca

Öz

The biggest and most problematic ethnic group suffering from poverty and racism in Europe, the Romani people are “the others” who have been marginalized and left to their fate also in Turkey. The women members of this group are more vulnerable to multiple discrimination and thus, constitute the one of the most disadvantaged group of the society. The Romani people have almost no intellectual accumulation in Turkey or in Europe. They have almost no non-governmental organizations to fight for their economic, political and social rights, either. Therefore, until recently they have been either left alone to solve their problems on their own or abandoned to the justice of political power.  

The purpose of this study is to detect the perceived ethnic discrimination experiences of Romani women who live in Turkey but about whom there are no scientific data.  In addition to this, the study also examines the effects of perceived discrimination experiences on group members’ self-esteem and hopelessness. The scales used to collect quantitative data are The Perceived Ethnic Discrimination Questionnaire, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and Beck Hopelessness Scale. The study was conducted in Bursa, the fourth biggest city in Turkey.

Kaynakça

• Abrams, Dominic. and Hogg, Michael A. 1988. Comments on the motivational status of self-esteem in social identity and intergroup discrimination.European Journal of Social Psychology. 18 (4): 317-334.
• Ajrouch, Kristine J., Reisine. Susan., Lim, Sungwoo., Sohn, Woosung. and Ismail, Amid. 2010. Perceived everyday discrimination and psychological distress: Does social support matter?, Ethnicity & Health, 15(4): 417-434.
• Altan, Ömer Zühtü. 2007. Sosyal Politika. Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları.
• Altınöz, İsmail. 2013. Osmanlı Toplumunda Çingeneler. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu.
• Asamen, Joy. K., and Berry, Gordon. L. 1987. Self-concept, alienation, and perceived prejudice: Implications for counseling with Asian Americans. Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development, 15: 140-160.
• Asseo, Henriette. 2007. Çingeneler Bir Avrupa Yazgısı. İstanbul. Yapı Kredi Yayınları. AvrupaBirliği 2006 Türkiye İlerleme Raporu (2006),http://www.madde14.org/images/5/54/2006turip.pdf, Access Date: 05.02. 2014.
• Avrupa Birliği 2007 Türkiye İlerleme Raporu (2007), http://www.madde14.org/images/c/c9/2007turip.pdf, Access Date: 05.02. 2014.
• Avrupa Birliği 2008 Türkiye İlerleme Raporu (2008), http://www.abgs.gov.tr/files/AB_Iliskileri/AdaylikSureci/IlerlemeRaporlari/turkiye_ilerleme_rap_2008.pdf, Erişim: 05.02. 2014.
• Avrupa Birliği 2009 Türkiye İlerleme Raporu (2009), http://www.abgs.gov.tr/files/AB_Iliskileri/AdaylikSureci/IlerlemeRaporlari/turkiye_ilerleme_rap_2009.pdf, Access Date: 05.02. 2014.
• Avrupa Birliği 2010 Türkiye İlerleme Raporu (2010), http://www.abgs.gov.tr/files/AB_Iliskileri/AdaylikSureci/IlerlemeRaporlari/turkiye_ilerleme_rap_2010.pdf, Access Date: 05.02. 2014.
• Avrupa Birliği 2011 Türkiye İlerleme Raporu (2011), http://www.abgs.gov.tr/files/AB_Iliskileri/AdaylikSureci/IlerlemeRaporlari/2011_ilerleme_raporu_tr.pdf, Access Date: 05.02. 2014.
• Avrupa Birliği 2012 Türkiye İlerleme Raporu (2012), http://www.abgs.gov.tr/files/strateji/2012_ilerleme_raporu.pdf, Access Date: 05.02. 2014.
• Avrupa Birliği 2013 Türkiye İlerleme Raporu (2013), http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/pdf/key_documents/2013/package/tr_rapport_2013_en.pdf, Access Date: 05.02. 2014.
• Bayraktar, Özlem. 2011. Çingeneler: Başka Bir Dünyanin İnsanlari. Global Media Journal. Turkish Edition. 1 (2): 118-132.
• Beck A.T. (1988). Beck Hopelessness Scale.The Pyschological Corporation.
• Buğra, Ayşe ve Keyder, Çağlar. 2003. “Yeni Yoksulluk ve Türkiye’nin Değişen Refah Rejimi”. Birleşmiş Milletler Kalkınma Programı İçin Hazırlanan Proje Raporu. http://www.tr.undp.org/content/dam/turkey/ docs/povreddoc/UNDP-TR-new_poverty.pdf, erişim tarihi, 10.02.2014.
• Cassidy, Clare., O’Connor. Rory C., Howe, Christine and Warden, David. (2004). Perceived discrimination and psychological distress: The role of personal and ethnic self-esteem, Journal of Counseling Psyhology, 51 (3): 329-339.
• Chung, Y. B. And Harman, L. W. (1999). Assessment of perceived occupational opportunity for Black Americans. Journal of Career Assessment. 7 (1):45-62.
• Communication From The Commission To The European Parliament, The Council, The European Economic And Social Committee and The Committee of The Regions, An EU Framework For National Roma Integration Strategies Up To 2020, Brussels, 5. 4.2011 com (2011) 173.Final.
• Crocker, Jennifer., and Quinn, Diane M. 1998. Racism and self-esteem. In Eberhardt, Jennifer L. and Fiske, Susan T. (Eds.) Con-fronting racism: The problem and the response. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. 169-187.
• Corning, Alexandra F. 2002. Self-Esteem as a moderator between perceived discrimination and psychological distress among women. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 49 (1):117-126.
• Declan, Barry T., and Grilo, Carlos M. 2003. Cultural, self-esteem, and demographic correlates of perception of personal and group discrimination among East Asian immigrants. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 73(2): 223-229.
• Demirel, Nurhan. 2012, Romanların Sosyal Dışlanma Probleminin Romanlar ve Toplum Düzeyinde Karşılaştırmalı Araştırması (Kocaeli örneği), Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Yalova.
• Duygulu, Melih. 1995. “Türkiye Çingenelerinde Müzik”, Tarih ve Toplum, 137(5): 294-297.
• Dovidio, John. F., veHebl, Michelle.R., (2005).”Discrimination at the level of individual: cognitive and affective factors.İç “Discrimination at work”.Dipboye, Robert. L. VeColella, Adrienne. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers.
• Eccleston, Collette, & Major, Brenda. 2006. Attributions to discrimination and self-esteem: The role of group identification and appraisals. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 9(2): 147-162.
• Ecri; Irkçılık ve Hoşgörüsüzlüğe Karşı Avrupa Komisyonu 2. Türkiye Raporu, Strasbourg, 2001, http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ ecri/Countryby-country/Turkey/TUR-CbC-II-2001-037-TUR.pdf, Access Date: 05.02.2014.
• Ecrı; Irkçılık ve Hosgörüsüzlüge Karşı Avrupa Komisyonu 3. Türkiye Raporu, Strasbourg, 2005, http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ ecri/Countryby-country/Turkey/TUR-CbC-III-2005-5-TUR.pdf, Access Date: 05.02. 2014.
• Ecrı; Irkçılık ve Hoşgörüsüzlüğe Karşı Avrupa Komisyonu 4. Türkiye Raporu, Strasbourg (2011), http://www.coe.int/t/dghl/monitoring/ ecri/country-by-country/turkey/TUR-CBC-IV-2011-005-TUR.pdf, Access Date: 05.02. 2014.
• Elmslie, Bruce., and Sedo, Stanley. 1996. Discrimination, social psychology, and hysteresis in labor market, Journal of Economic Psychology, 17(4): 465-478.
• Fischer, Ann R., and Holz, Kenna B. 2007. Perceived discrimination and women’s psychological distress: The roles of collective and personal self-esteem. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54(2), 154-164.
• Greene, Melissa L., Way, Niobe., and Pahl, Kerstin. 2006. Trajectories of perceived adult and peer discrimination among Black, Latino, and Asian American Adolescents: Patterns and psychological correlates. Developmental Psychology, 42(2): 218-238.
• Göncüoğlu, Süleyman F., Yavuztürk, Şükriye P. 2009. Sulukule ve Çingeneleri. Atatürk Üniversitesi Güzel Sanatlar Enstitüsü Dergisi, 23(2): 107-134.
• Hunter, John. A., O’Brien, Kerry. S., and Stringer, Maurice. 2007. Threats to identity, self-esteem and intergroup discrimination. Social Behaviour and Personality, 35 (7): 937-942.
• Karaman, Zerrin T. 2009. Participation to the public life and becoming organized at local level in Romani settlements in Izmir. Land Use Policy, 26 (2): 308-321.
• Kolukırık, Suat. 2009. Dünden Bugüne Çingeneler, İstanbul: OzanYayıncılık. İstanbul.
• Kolukırık, Suat. 2006. Dil, Kimlik ve Kültür: Tarlabaşı Çingenelerinde Dilin Sosyal İşlevi. Akademik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 31(8): 97-109.
• Kurt-Topuz, Senem. 2010. Yurttaşlık Kavramı ve Türkiye’de Yurttaşlık: Edirne Çingenelerinin/ Romanlarının Yurttaşlık Algısı Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Yayınlanmış Doktora Tezi, Ankara.
• Lam, Brien T. 2007. Impact of perceived racial discrimination and collective self-esteem on psychological distress among Vietnamese-American college students: Sense of coherence as mediator. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 77(3), 370-376.
• Marsh, Adrean. 2008. Etnisite ve Kimlik: Çingenelerin Kökeni. İçinde. Biz Buradayız! Türkiye’de Romanlar, Ayrımcı Uygulamalar ve Hak Mücadelesi. Edirne Roman Derneği.
• Marsh, Adrean. 2008. Türkiye Çingenelerinin Tarihi Hakkında. İçinde. Biz Buradayız! Türkiye’de Romanlar, Ayrımcı Uygulamalar ve Hak Mücadelesi. Edirne Roman Derneği.
• Mossakowski, Krysia N. 2003. Coping with perceived discrimination: Does ethnic identity protect mental health? Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44(3), 318-331.
• Nyborg, Vanessa M. and Curry, John F. 2003. The impact of perceived racism: Psychological Symptoms among African American boys. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 32(2): 258-266.
• Öke, Mustafa. K., and Kurt-Topuz, Senem. 2010. Eşit Yurttaşlık Hakları Bağlamında Çingene Yurttaşların Sosyal ve Ekonomik Haklara Erişimi: Edirne Örneği. Sosyal Haklar Uluslararası Sempozyumu, II, Bildirileriçinde, İstanbul: Petrol İşYayını 113.
• Panchanadeswaran, Subadra., and Dawson, Beverly A. 2011. How discrimination and stress affects self-esteem among Dominican immigrant women: an exploratory study. Social Work in Public Health, 26 (1): 60-77.
• Roman Topluluklar İçin Bütünlüklü Sosyal Politikalar Geliştirme Projesi. 2011. Sosyal Dışlanmanın Roman Halleri, http://www.spf.boun. edu.tr/content_files/Roman_Kitap_TR.pdf, Access Date: 05.08. 2013.
• Romero, Andrea. J., and Roberts, Robert. E. 2003. The impact of multiple dimensions of ethnic identity on discrimination and adolescents’ self-esteem. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33(11): 2288-2305.
• Rosenberg, M. (1965).Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Uçan-Çubukçu, Sevgi 2011. Mekânın İzdüşümünde Toplumsal Cinsiyet: Sulukule Mahallesi ve Romanlar. İ.Ü. Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 44 (1): 83-106.
• Ünaldı, Halime. 2012. Türkiye’de Yaşayan Kültürel Bir Farklılık: Çingeneler. Journal of Life Sciences, 1(1): 615-626.
• Verkuyten, Maykel. 1998. Perceived discrimination and self-esteem among ethnic minority adults. Journal of Social Psychology, 138 (4): 479-493.