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Possible Origin of Fulcrum in the Near East and Emergence in Greek Beds.

Yıl 2023, Sayı: 1, 43 - 96, 31.03.2023

Öz

Beds used for eating, resting and lounging were produced in different forms in the Near East and Aegean world. The most defining feature of the beds are the foot and headrest. It is understood from the descriptive art and archaeological finds that special importance was given to the beds in the Near East, starting from Egypt. The single headboards of the Egyptian beds are decorated with classical Egyptian mythological iconography and plant motifs. The feets of the beds are in the form of animal legs. In Mesopotamia and the surrounding cultures, some of the feet follow the Egyptian examples, while some of them have a cone-shaped plastic figure called the Assyrian form. The headboards, on the other hand, are inclined in contrast to the Egyptian ones and sometimes turn inwards in the form of 'C'. The Near East is seen as the Eastern Mediterranean production base in furniture production. Ivory decorations are prominent and have a great influence on both Anatolian and Aegean (Greek) furniture. The emergence of the fulcrum, which is the figured or plastic decorated part of the headboard or armrest, which was very popular in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, poses a problem in terms of origin. After making a short definition of fulcrum, how it emerged was tried to be determined by examining the decorative parts in furniture-bed samples in neighboring geographies and cultures such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, Iran and Anatolia. However, there are limited written sources and almost non-existent archaeological material on the Greek deposits. However, vases seem to be the only source for Greek bed types and details. A general but brief evaluation has been made on the stylistic development and differences of these beds in the light of ancient texts, modern studies and examples preserved in museums that have survived. In particular, the position of the headboard, armrests on the bed, materials and figures of the beds were evaluated together. As can be understood from the development and use of fulcrums, which have gained their classical form by being decorated with figures over time, it is seen that they were copied hundreds of years with very little stylistic change and even directly from the Near East in their plain form at the end of the Archaic period. Fulcrums are dependent on the old but more original in terms of form in the Hellenistic Period, which includes original and quality examples. In the Roman Period, the fulcrum, which was directly copied from the Hellenistic type, changed its form over time to have a higher and longer form. However, it is seen that Roman types are used much more widely in large geographies, even if they are sometimes devoid of decoration.

Kaynakça

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  • Barnett, R. D. (1982). Ancient Ivories in the Middle East. Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
  • Barr-Sharrar, B. (1985). “The Anticythera Fulcrum Bust: A Portrait of Arsinoë III”, American Journal of Archaeology, 89.4, 689-692.
  • Barr-Sharrar, B. (1987). The Hellenistic and Early Imperial Decorative Bust. Mainz.
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FULCRUM'UN YAKIN DOĞU'DAKİ OLASI KÖKENİ VE YUNAN YATAKLARINDA ORTAYA ÇIKIŞI

Yıl 2023, Sayı: 1, 43 - 96, 31.03.2023

Öz

Yemek, dinlenmek ve uzanmak için kullanılan yataklar Yakın Doğu ve Ege dünyasında farklı formda üretilmişlerdir. Yatakların en belirleyici özelliği ayak ve başlık kısımlarıdır. Yakın Doğu’da Mısır’dan başlayarak yataklara özel önem verildiği tasvirli sanat ve arkeolojik buluntular ile anlaşılmaktadır. Mısır yataklarının tek başlıkları klasik mısır mitolojik ikonografi ve bitki motifleri ile süslüdür. Yatakların ayakları hayvan bacağı formundadır. Mezopotamya ve çevre kültürlerde ise ayakların bazıları Mısır örneklerini izlerken bazıları Asur formu denen kozalak biçimli plastik figürlüdür. Yatak başlık kısımları ise Mısır’ın tersine eğimli ve bazen ‘C’ formunda içe döner. Yakın Doğu mobilya üretiminde Doğu Akdeniz üretim üssü olarak görülmektedir. Fildişi dekorasyonlar ön plandadır ve hem Anadolu hem de Ege (Yunan) mobilyaları üzerine büyük etkisi vardır. Hellenistik ve Roma Dönemi’nde çok popüler olan yatak başlık veya kol dayama yerinin figürlü ya da plastik bezemeli kısmı olan fulcrumun ortaya çıkışı köken açısından bir sorun oluşturmaktadır. Fulcrumun kısa tanımı yapıldıktan sonra nasıl ortaya çıktığı Mısır, Mezopotamya, İran ve Anadolu gibi komşu coğrafya ve kültürlerde mobilya-yatak örneklerinde bezemeli aksam ele alınmış gelişimi saptanmaya çalışılmıştır. Fakat Yunan yatakları konusunda sınırlı yazılı kaynak ve neredeyse yok denecek kadar az arkeolojik malzeme vardır. Buna rağmen vazolar, Yunan yatak tipleri ve detayları konusunda tek kaynak görünmektedir. Bu yataklarının stilistik gelişimi ve farkları üzerine antik metinler, modern çalışmalar ve günümüze gelmiş müzelerde korunan örnekler ışığında genel fakat özet bir değerlendirme yapılmıştır. Özellikle yatakların başlık, kol dayama yerlerinin konumu, duruşları, malzemeleri ve figürleri birlikte değerlendirilmiştir. Zamanla figürlerle süslenerek klasik formuna kavuşan fulcrumların gelişimlerinden ve kullanımlarından da anlaşıldığı gibi yüzlerce yıl çok az bir üslup değişimiyle ve hatta doğrudan Yakın Doğu’dan sade biçimiyle Arkaik dönem sonunda kopya edildiği görülmektedir. Fulcrumlar, özgün ve kaliteli örnekler içeren Hellenistik Dönem’de form açısından eskiye bağımlı fakat daha özgündür. Roma Dönemi’nde ise Hellenistik tipten doğrudan kopya edilen fulcrum zamanla formunu değiştirerek daha yüksek ve uzun forma sahip olur. Fakat bazen bezemeden yoksun da olsalar Roma tiplerinin geniş coğrafyalarda çok daha yaygın şekilde kullanıldığı görülür.

Kaynakça

  • Amelung, W. (1902). “Das capitolinische ‘Bisellium’”, Mitteilungen des Kaiserlich Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Römische Abteilung, 17, 269-276.
  • Anderson, W. C. F. (1889). “The Meaning of Fulcrum and Fulcri Genius”, CR 3, 1889, 322-324.
  • Anderson, L. M. (2014). “Approaches to the Identification and Classification of Ancient Bronzes in Museum Collection”, S. Ebbinghaus (Ed.), Ancient Bronzes through a Modern Lens; Introductory Essays on the Study of Ancient Mediterranean and Near Eastern Bronzes, Cambridge, 92-111.
  • Andrianou, D. (2006). “Chairs, Beds, and Table: Evidence for Furnished Interiors in Hellenistic Greece”, Hesperia, 75.2, 219-266.
  • Baker, H. S. (1966). Furniture in the Ancient World: Origins and Evolution, 3100–475. BC. London.
  • Barnett, R. D. (1957). A Catalogue of the Nimrud Ivories with Other Examples of Ancient Near Eastern Ivories in the British Museum. London.
  • Barnett, R. D. (1959). Assyrian Palace Reliefs and their Inluence on the Sculptures of Babylonia and Persia. London.
  • Barnett, R. D. (1976). Sculptures from the North Palace of Ashurbanipal at Niniveh 668-628 B.C. London.
  • Barnett, R. D. (1982). Ancient Ivories in the Middle East. Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
  • Barr-Sharrar, B. (1985). “The Anticythera Fulcrum Bust: A Portrait of Arsinoë III”, American Journal of Archaeology, 89.4, 689-692.
  • Barr-Sharrar, B. (1987). The Hellenistic and Early Imperial Decorative Bust. Mainz.
  • Baughan, E. P. (2013). Couched in Death: Klinai and Identity in Anatolia and Beyond. London.
  • Bedford, P. R. (2007). “The Persian Near East”, W. Scheidel-I.Morris-R.Saller (Eds.), The Cambridge Economic History of The Greco-Roman World, Cambridge, 302-332.
  • Benndorf, O. & Niemann, G. (1994). Reisen in Lykien und Karien. Wien.
  • Bernard, P. (1960). “Sièges et lits en ivoire d'époque hellénistique en Asie centrale”, Syria, 67, 189-286, Pl.1-3.
  • Bianchi, C. (2010). “I letti con rivestimento in osso e avario”, LANX, 5, 39-106.
  • Boardman, J. (1990). “Symposion Furniture”, O. Murray (Ed.), Sympotica, A Symposium on the “Symposion”, Oxford, 122-131.
  • Boardman, J. (2000). Persia and the West, London.
  • Boatwright, Mary T. & Gargola, D. J. & Talbert, R. J. A. (2004). The Romans, From Village to Empire. New York.
  • Boucher, S. (1982). “Les lits grecs en bronze de Bourgoin-Jallieu (Isère)”, Gallia, 40.1, 171-193.
  • Burkert, W. (1992). The Orientalizing Revolution, Near Eastern Influence on Greek Culture in the Early Archaic Age. London.
  • Castellani, A. (1874). “Il bisellio capitolini”, BullCom, 2, 22-32.
  • Castellani, A. (1881). “La lettiga capitolina”, BullCom, 29, 214-224.
  • Clair, A. St. (2003). Carving as Craft, Palatine East and the Greco-Roman Bone and Ivory Carving Tradition. London.
  • Clercq, L. De (1903). Collection De Clercq, II, Antiquités assyriennes. Paris.
  • Curtis, J. (1993). “Assyrian Furniture: The Archaeological Evidence”, G. Herrmann (Ed.), The Furniture of Western Asia: Ancient and Traditional,Mainz, 167-180.
  • Curtis, J. (2008). “Observations on Selected Metal Objects from The Nimrud Tombs”, J. E. Curtis et al. (Eds.), New Light on Nimrud, London, 243-253.
  • Curtis, J. (2013). An Examination of Late Assyrian Metalwork with Special Reference to Nimrud. Oxford.
  • Davis, T. M. (2000). The tomb of Iouiya and Touiyou with the funeral papyrus of Iouiya. London.
  • Demetriou, A. (2001). “Phoenicians in Cyprus and their hellenisation. The case of Kition”, Archaeologia Cypria, 4, 135-44.
  • Dentzer, J. M. (1982). Le motif du Banquet Couché dans le Proche Orient et le Monde Grec du VII au IV siècle avant J.-C, BEFAR 246. Paris.
  • Doumeyrou, E. (1989). “An Ivory Fulcrum Medaillion”, The J. Paul Getty Museum Journal, 17, 5-14.
  • Eaton-Krauss, M. (2008). The thrones, chairs, stools and footstools from the tomb of Tutankhamun. Oxford.
  • Faust, S. (1989). Fulcra: Figürlicher und ornamentaler Schmuck an antiken Betten. Mainz. Fehr, B. (1971). Orientalische und griechische Gelage. Bonn.
  • Goff, B. L. (1963). Symbols of Prehistoric Mesopotamia. New Heaven – London.
  • Griefenhagen, A. (1930). “Bronzekline im Pariser Kunsthandel”, Römische Mitteilungen, 45, 137-165.
  • Grimal, P. (1997). Mitoloji Sözlüğü, Yunan ve Roma. (Çev. S. Tamgüç), İstanbul.
  • Gutzwiller, K. & Çelik, Ö. (2012). “New Menander Mosaics from Antioch”, American Journal of Archaeology, 116.4, 573-623.
  • Hadley, J. M. (1987). “Some drawings and inscriptions on two pithoi from Kuntillet ‘Ajrud’”, Vetus Testamentum, 37.2, 180-213. Hall, H. R. (1928). Babylonian and Assyrian Sculpture in the British Museum. Paris.
  • Harris, J. (1994), A Passion for Antiquities, Ancient Art from the Collection of Barbara and Lawrence Fleischman. Malibu.
  • Hawkins, J. D. (1980). “Late Hittite Funerary Monuments”, B. Alster (Ed.), Death in Mesopotamia, Copenhagen, 213-225.
  • Hermann, G. (2008). “The Ivories from Nimrud”, J. E. Curtis et al. (Eds.), New Light on Nimrud, London, 225-232. Hoffmann, H. (1957). “A Bronze Fulcrum in Providence”, American Journal of Archaeology, 61.2, 167-168.
  • Howatson M. C. (2013). Oxford Antikçağ Sözlüğü (Ed.). (Çev. F. Ersöz), İstanbul.
  • Hurwit, J. M. (2006). “Lizards, lions, and the uncanny in early Greek art”, Hesperia, 75.1, 121-126.
  • Kaplan, D. (2019). “Yüksel Erimtan Koleksiyonu’ndan İki Terrakotta Fulcrum Figürü”, Anadolu/Anatolia, 45, 57-90.
  • Kent Hill, D. (1952/1953). “A Bronze Couch”, The Journal of the Walters Art Gallery, 15/16, 48-61.
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Toplam 101 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Arkeoloji
Bölüm Araştırma Makaleleri
Yazarlar

Davut Kaplan 0000-0002-5690-1639

Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Mart 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Kaplan, D. (2023). FULCRUM’UN YAKIN DOĞU’DAKİ OLASI KÖKENİ VE YUNAN YATAKLARINDA ORTAYA ÇIKIŞI. Anatolian Archaeology(1), 43-96.

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