FAŞİZM KURAMLARINDA SOĞUK SAVAŞ SONRASI YAKLAŞIMLAR: JENERİK FAŞİZM TARTIŞMALARI VE ROGER GRIFFIN

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 25 Sayı: 4, 357 - 381, 31.12.2024

Mustafa Bölükbaşı

https://doi.org/10.53443/anadoluibfd.1490620

Öz

Faşizmin Marksist olmayan jenerik bir tanımını yapma girişimlerinin 1960’ların ortasından itibaren başladığı kabul edilmektedir. Soğuk Savaş sonrasında karşılaştırmalı faşizm çalışmaları, ekonomik ya da kurumsal boyutlarından ziyade artan şekilde faşizmin ideolojik ve kültürel boyutlarına yoğunlaşmıştır. Bu araştırmalar içerisinde, Roger Griffin’in karşılaştırmalı faşizm çalışmaları literatürünü birleştirebilmek amacıyla faşizmi jenerik bir kavram olarak “popülist ultra-milliyetçiliğin palingenetik biçimi” şeklinde tanımladığı bir dizi çalışması özellikle dikkat çekicidir. Bu makale, karşılaştırmalı faşizm çalışmaları literatüründe önemli bir yeri olan jenerik faşizm yaklaşımını, analitik bir yöntemle, Roger Griffin’in yaklaşımı özelinde tartışmaktadır. Bu çalışma, Griffin’in tanımının faşist kültür ve sanat gibi spesifik alanlar için kullanışlı olduğunu kabul etmektedir. Öte yandan Griffin’in yeni mutabakat iddiasına şüpheci yaklaşmakta ve faşizmin eylem ve örgütlenme biçimlerinden yalıtılarak anlaşılamayacağını öne sürmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Faşizm, Roger Griffin, Palingenetik Mit, Popülist Ultra-Milliyetçilik, Yeni Mutabakat

POST-COLD WAR APPROACHES IN THEORIES OF FASCISM: GENERIC FASCISM DEBATES AND ROGER GRIFFIN

Öz

It is accepted that attempts to provide a generic non-Marxist definition of fascism began in the mid-1960s. In the post-Cold War period, comparative fascism studies have increasingly focused on the ideological and cultural dimensions of fascism rather than its economic or institutional dimensions. Among these studies, Roger Griffin’s series of studies, in which he defined fascism as a generic concept as a “palingenetic form of populist ultra-nationalism” in order to unify the comparative fascism studies literature, is particularly noteworthy. This study discusses the generic fascism approach, which has an important place in the comparative fascism studies literature, with an analytical method, with a special focus on Roger Griffin’s approach. This study recognizes that Griffin’s definition is particularly useful for specific fields such as fascist culture and art. On the other hand, it is skeptical of Griffin’s claim of a new consensus and argues that fascism cannot be understood in isolation from its forms of action and organization.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Fascism, Roger Griffin, Palingenetic Myth, Populist Ultra-Nationalism, New Consensus

Kaynakça

• Adorno, T., E. Frenkel-Brunswik, D. Levinson ve N. Sanford. (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper ve Bros.
• Affron, M. ve M. Antliff (editörler) (1997). Fascist visions: Art and ideology in France and Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Allardyce, G. (1979). What fascism is not: Thoughts on the deflation of a concept. The American Historical Review, 84(2), 367-388.
• Antliff, M. (2007). Avant-garde fascism: The mobilization of myth, art and culture in France, 1909–1939. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
• Bauerkämper, A. (2006). Der faschismus in Europa 1918–1945. Stuttgart: Philipp Reclam.
• Bauernkämper, A. (2006). A new consensus? Recent research on fascism in Europe, 1918–1945. History Compass, 4(3), 536-566. doi: 10.1111/j.1478-0542.2006.00316.x
• Beetham, D. (1983). Marxists in face of fascism: Writings by Marxists on fascism from the inter-war period. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
• Berezin, M. (1997). Making the fascist self: The political culture of interwar Italy. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press.
• Berkes, N. (1943). Modern ekonominin tezatlarından faşizm. Yurt ve Dünya, 33, 325-330.
• Bölükbaşı, M. (2012). Faşist estetik: Leni Riefenstahl filmleri üzerine bir inceleme (Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi). İstanbul, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
• Braun, E. (2000). Mario Sironi and Italian modernism: Art and politics under fascism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Cammett, J. M. (1967). Communist theories of fascism, 1920-1935. Science & Society, 31(2), 149-163.
• Cârstocea, R. (2020). Approaching generic fascism from the margins: On the uses of ‘Palingenesis’ in the Romanian context. C. Iordachi (Ed.), Beyond the fascist century: essays in honour of Roger Griffin içinde (s. 153-176). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Childers, T. (1983). The Nazi voter: The social foundations of fascism in Germany, 1919–1933. Chapel Hill and Londra: University of North Carolina Press.
• Copsey, N. (1994). The ideology of the British National Party. Politics, 14(3), 101-108.
• Copsey, N. (2004). Contemporary British fascism: The British National Party and the quest for legitimacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• De Felice, R. (1977). Interpretations of fascism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
• De Grand, A. (2014). Griffin’s new consensus: A bit too minimal? R. Griffin, W. Loh, & A. Umland (editörler), Fascism past and present, west and east: An ınternational debate on concepts and cases in the comparative study of the extreme right içinde (s. 94-98). Stuttgart: Ibidem.
• Dimitrov, G. (1972). Selected works (Cilt 2). Sofia: Sofia Press.
• Drábik, J. (2020). The history of Czech fascism: A reappraisal. C. Iordachi (Ed.), Beyond the fascist century: Essays in honour of Roger Griffin içinde (s. 177-194). Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Drucker, P. (1939). The end of economic man. New York: John Day.
• Eatwell, R. (1992). Towards a new model of generic fascism. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 4(2), 161-194. doi: 10.1177/0951692892004002003
• Eatwell, R. (1996). Fascism: A history. Londra: Allen Lane.
• Eatwell, R. (1996). On defining the ‘fascist minimum’: the centrality of ıdeology. Journal of Political Ideologies, 1(3), 303-319.
• Eatwell, R. (2010). The nature of generic fascism: The fascist minimum and the fascist matrix. C. Iordachi (Ed.), Comparative fascist studies: New perspectives içinde (s. 134-161). Londra and New York: Routledge.
• Eatwell, R. (2014). The nature of fascism: Or essentialism by another name? R. Griffin, W. Loh, & A. Umland (editörler), Fascism past and present, west and east: An international debate on concepts and cases in the comparative study of the extreme right içinde (s. 104-109). Stuttgart: Ibidem.
• Friedrich, C. J., & Brzezinski, Z. K. (1956). Totalitarian dictatorship and autocracy. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.
• Fromm, E. (1942). Fear of freedom. Londra: Kegan, Paul and Company.
• Gentile, E. (1975). Le origini dell'ideologia fascista. Bari: Laterza.
• Gentile, E. (1996). The sacralization of politics in fascist Italy. (Çev. K. Botsford) Cambridge, Massachusetts ve Londra: Harvard University Press.
• Goldberg, J. (2007). Liberal fascism: The secret history of the American left from Mussolini to the politics of meaning. New York: Doubleday.
• Gordon, L. (2023). The American fascists. G. D. Rosenfeld ve J. Ward (Editörler), Fascism in America: past and present içinde (s. 141-169). New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Gottfried, P. (2016). Fascism: The career of a concept. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press.
• Göze, A. (2009). Liberal Marxiste faşist nasyonal sosyalist ve sosyal devlet, İstanbul: Beta.
• Gregor, A. J. (1974). Interpretations of fascism. Morristown: General Learning.
• Gregor, A. J. (2000). The faces of Janus: Marxism and Fascism in the twentieth century. New Haven and Londra: Yale University Press.
• Gregor, A. J. (2009). Marxism, fascism, and totalitarianism: Chapters in the intellectual history of radicalism. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
• Gregor, A. J. (2014). Roger Griffin, social science, fascism, and the extreme right. R. Griffin, W. Loh ve A. Umland (Editörler), Fascism past and present, west and east: An international debate on concepts and cases in the comparative study of the extreme right içinde (s. 115-122). Stuttgart: Ibidem.
• Griffin, R. (1993). The nature of fascism. Londra ve New York: Routledge.
• Griffin, R. (Ed.). (1995). Fascism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Griffin, R. (Ed.). (1998). International fascism: Theories, causes and the new consensus. Londra: Edward Arnold.
• Griffin, R. (2002). The primacy of culture: The current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies. The Journal of Contemporary History, 37(1), 21-43. doi: 10.1177/00220094020370010701
• Griffin, R. (Ed.). (2005). Fascism, totalitarianism and political religion. Londra: Routledge.
• Griffin, R. (2007). Modernism and fascism: The sense of a beginning under Mussolini and Hitler. Houndmills, Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Griffin, R. (2011). Fascism and culture: A mosse-centric meta-narrative (or how fascist studies reinvented the wheel). A. C. Pinto (Ed.), Rethinking the nature of fascism: comparative perspectives içinde (s. 85-116). Londra: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Griffin, R. (2012). Studying fascism in a post-fascist age. From new consensus to new wave? Journal Of Comparative Fascist Studies, 1(1), 1-17.
• Griffin, R. (2014). Da Capo, Con Meno Brio: Towards a more useful conceptualization of generic fascism. R. Griffin, W. Loh ve A. Umland (Ed.). Fascism past and present, west and east: An ınternational debate on concepts and cases in the comparative study of the extreme right içinde (s. 243-281). Stuttgart: Ibidem.
• Griffin, R. ve Feldman, M. (Ed.). (2004). Fascism: Critical concepts in political science. Londra: Routledge.
• Griffin, R., Loh, W. ve Umland, A. (Ed.). (2014). Fascism past and present, west and east: An ınternational debate on conepts and cases in the comparative study of the extreme right. Stuttgart: Ibidem.
• Guy, J. J. (2001). Fascism, Nazism, nationalism and the foundation of apartheid ideology. (Ed. S. U. Larsen), Fascism outside Europe: The European impulse against domestic conditions in the diffusion of global fascism içinde. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Hagtvet, B., & R. Kühnl. (1980). Contemporary approches to fascism: A survey of paradigms. S. U. Larsen, B. Hagtvet ve J. P. Myklebust (Ed.), Who were the fascists: Social roots of European fascism içinde (s. 26-51). Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.
• Hamilton, R. F. (1982). Who voted for Hitler? Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press.
• Haro, L. (2011). Entering a theoretical void: The theory of social fascism and Stalinism in the German Communist Party. Critique, 39(4), 563-582. doi: 10.1080/03017605.2011.621248
• Hennessy, A. (1978). Fascism and populism in Latin America. W. Laqueur (Ed.), Fascism: A reader's guide içinde (s. 255-294). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Iordachi, C. (2010). Comparative fascist studies: An introduction. C. Iordachi (Ed.). Comparative fascist studies: New Perspectives içinde (s. 1-50). Londra ve New York: Routledge.
• Kakınç, T. (1968). Mussolini kimdir, faşizm nedir? İstanbul: AKK Kitapçılık.
• Kallis, A. A. (2003). To expand or not to expand? Territory, generic fascism and the quest for an ıdeal fatherland. Journal of Contemporary History, 38(2), 237-260.
• Kasza, G. J. (1984). Fascism from below? a comparative perspective on the Japanese right, 1931- 1936. Journal of Contemporary History, 19(4), 607-629.
• Kemal, F. (1928). Benito Mussolini ve faşizm. İstanbul: Fevzi Matbaası.
• Kershaw, I. (2004). Hitler and the uniqueness of Nazism. Journal of Contemporary History, 39(2), 239-254.
• Kershaw, I. (2015). Nazi dictatorship: Problems and perspectives of interpretation. Londra: Bloomsbury Academic.
• Kunkeler, N. D. (2021). Making fascism in Sweden and the Netherlands: Myth-creation and respectability, 1931-40. Londra: Bloomsbury.
• Kühnl, R. (1990). Faschismustheorien: Ein leitfaden. qktualisierte neuauflage. Heilbronn: Distel.
• Larsen, S. U. (2001). Was there fascism outside Europe? Diffusion from Europe and domestic impulses. S. U. Larsen (Ed.). Fascism outside Europe: The European impulse against domestic conditions in the diffusion of global fascism içinde (s. 705-818). New York: Columbia University Press.
• Linehan, T. (2000). British fascism 1918-39: Parties, ideology and culture. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
• Lipset, S. M. (1960). Political man: The social bases of politics. Londra: Heinemann.
• Love, G. (2007). What’s the big idea? Oswald Mosley, the British Union of Fascists and Generic Fascism. Journal of Contemporary History, 42(3), 447-468.
• Mann, M. (2004). Fascists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Mason, T. W. (1975). Arbeiterklasse und volksgemeinschaft: Dokumente und materialien zur deutschen arbeiterpolitik 1936–1939. Berlin: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften.
• Moore Jr., B. (1966). Social origins of dictatorship and democracy. Boston: Beacon Press.
• Morgan, P. (2004). Italian fascism, 1915-1945. Londra: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Mosse, G. L. (1999). The fascist revolution: Toward a general theory of fascism. New York: Howard Fertig.
• Mudde, C. (2004). Racist extremism in Central and Eastern Europe. Londra: Routledge.
• Mühlberger, D. (1991). Hitler's followers: Studies in the sociology of the Nazi movement. Londra: Routledge.
• Mühlberger, D. (Ed.). (2016). The social basis of European fascist movements. Londra ve New York: Routledge.
• Neocleous, M. (2005). The monstrous and the dead: Burke, Marx, Fascism. Cardiff: University of Wales Press.
• Nolte, E. (1965). Three faces of fascism: Action Française, Italian Fascism, national socialism. Londra: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
• Okyayuz, M. (2004). Klasik faşizmin kavramsallaştırılması üzerine bir deneme. Doğu-Batı, 30, 191-208.
• Organski, A. F. (1965). The stages of political development. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
• Orhan, S. (2019). Popülizm, liberal demokrasi ve faşizm denklemi. Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 68(4), 795-840. doi: 10.33629/auhfd.721387
• Orlow, D. (2009). The lure of fascism in Western Europe. Londra: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Örs, H. B. (2010). Faşizm: Modernitenin karanlık yüzü. H. Birsen Örs (Ed.). 19. yüzyıldan 20. yüzyıla modern siyasal ideolojiler içinde (s. 477-514). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
• Passmore, K. (2014). Generic fascism and the historians. R. Griffin, W. Loh ve A. Umland (editörler). Fascism past and present, west and east: An international debate on concepts and cases in the comparative study of the extreme right içinde (s. 168-174). Stuttgart: Ibidem.
• Paxton, R. O. (2004). The anatomy of fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
• Payne, S. G. (1961). Falange: A history of Spanish fascism. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
• Payne, S. G. (1980). Fascism: comparison and definition. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press.
• Payne, S. G. (1995). A history of fascism, 1914-1945. Madison: Univeisity of Wisconsin Press.
• Payne, S. G. (2014). Commentary on Roger Griffin's 'fascism's new faces'. R. Griffin, W. Loh ve A. Umland (editörler). Fascism past and present, west and east: An ınternational debate on concepts and cases in the comparative study of the extreme right içinde (s. 175-178). Stuttgart: Ibidem.
• Pinto, A. C. (Ed..). (2011). Rethinking the nature of fascism: Comparative perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Pinto, A. C. (2012). The nature of fascism revisited. New York: Columbia University Press.
• Pinto, A. C., & A. Kallis, (Ed.). (2014). Rethinking fascism and dictatorship in Europe. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Prowe, D. (1994). 'Classic' fascism and the new radical right in Western Europe: Comparisons and contrasts. Contemporary European History, 3(3), 289-313. doi: 10.1017/S0960777300000904
• Renton, D. (1999). Fascism: Theory and practice. Londra: Pluto Press.
• Roberts, D. D., De Grand, A., Antliff, M., & Linehan, T. (2002). Comments on Roger Griffin, 'The primacy of culture: The current growth (or manufacture) of consensus within fascist studies. Journal of Contemporary History, 37(2), 259-274.
• Robinson, R. A. (1981). Fascism in Europe, 1919-1945. Londra: The Historical Association.
• Sândulescu, V. (2004). Fascism and its quest for the ‘new man’: The case of the Romanian Legionary Movement. Studia Hebraica (4), 349–361.
• Seton-Watson, H. (1966). Fascism, right and left. Journal of Contemporary History, 1(1), 183-197.
• Shenfield, S. (2001). Russian fascism: Traditions, tendencies, movements. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
• Shields, J. (2007). The extreme right in France: from Pétain to Le Pen. Londra: Routledge.
• Sinanoğlu, N. H. (1933). Faşizm ve onun devlet sistemi, Ankara: Ankara Matbaası.
• Soucy, R. (1986). French fascism: The first wave, 1924-33. New Haven ve Londra: Yale University Press.
• Soucy, R. (1995). French fascism: The second wave, 1933-1939. New Haven ve Londra: Yale University Press.
• Soucy, R. (2014). What Is Meant by Revolutionary Fascism. R. Griffin, W. Loh ve A. Umland (Ed.). Fascism past and present, west and east: An international debate on concepts and cases in the comparative study of the extreme right içinde (s. 212-218). Stuttgart: Ibidem.
• Sternhell, Z. (1976). Fascist ideology. W. Laqueur (Ed.). Fascism: A reader's guide içinde (s. 315-378). Berkeley ve Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Sternhell, Z. (1986). Neither right nor left: Fascist ideology in France. (Çev: D. Maisel) New Jersey: Princeten University Press.
• Sternhell, Z. (2000). Fascism: Reflections on the fate of ideas in twentieth century history. Journal of Political Ideologies, 5(2), 139-162.
• Sternhell, Z., Sznajder, M., & Asheri, M. (1994). The birth of fascist ideology: From cultural rebellion to political revolution. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Thalheimer, A. (1983). On fascism. D. Beetham (Ed.), Marxists in face of fascism: Writings by Marxists on fascism from the inter-war period içinde (s. 187-195). Manchester: Manchester University Press.
• Thurlow, R. (1987). Fascism in Britain: A History 1918–1985. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
• Trevor-Roper, H. R. (1981). The Phenomenon of Fascism. S. J. Woolf (Ed.). Fascism in Europe içinde (s. 19-38). Londra ve New York: Methuen.
• Umland, A. (2005). Concepts of Fascism in Contemporary Russia and the West. Political Studies Review (3), 34-49. doi: 10.1111/j.1478-9299.2005.00018.x
• Weber, E. (1964). Varieties of fascism: doctrines of revolution in the twentieth century. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company.
• Wehler, H.-U. (1969). Bismarck und der imperialismus. Cologne: Kiepenheuer & Witsch.
• Wippermann, W. (1989). Faschismustheorien. Zum stand der gegenwärtigen diskussion. Darmstadt: Primus Verlag.
• Woodley, D. (2010). Fascism and political theory: Critical perspectives on fascist ideology. Oxon ve New York: Routledge.
• Yeşil, H. (1994). Faşizm nedir, sosyal demokrasi nedir? İstanbul: Dönüşüm Yayınları.