Death in Zeugma: a survey of the tombs
Öz
This paper presents an evaluation of data obtained from field surveys that took place in the necropoleis of Zeugma (Seleucia on the Euphrates) between 2008 and 2010. The necropoleis appear to have developed along the ancient roads that led from the city and are located to the east, west and south. Featuring a beige-yellowish coloured soft limestone bedrock, low-lying hills, valleys and slopes, the local geography defined the nature of tomb architecture. Tomb types include “rock-cut cist; rock-cut chamber tomb (hypogeum); tumulus; sarcophagus and tomb stele.” Although rock-cut cist is typical of the eastern necropolis, it has been noted in recent studies that they also exist in the southern necropolis. Moreover, field surveys have revealed traces of such tombs in the western necropolis as well. This tomb type must have been used from the Hellenistic period until the mid-1st century AD. Rock-cut chamber tombs must have become more popular after the city grew and the legions were deployed here during the Roman imperial period. This tomb type frequently consists of a front room that can be identified as a vestibulum and a main burial chamber that is designed to resemble a triclinium. Besides this double chamber type, there are also examples of single-chambered hypogea. In this type, the burial is made in cists underneath arcosolia carved into the walls of the burial chamber. In the case of loculi carved vertically into the wall of chamber tombs, the body was laid in cists or directly on flat floor surfaces. These tombs have elaborate decoration featuring freestanding statues outside the tomb, frescoes with floral patterns and mythological figures, architectural features, rock reliefs inside and/or outside the tomb. These indicate that some of the tombs were commissioned by wealthy families. It is possible that some tombs belonged to collegia. It is known that this tomb type, which exists in all of the necropoleis, was used from the Hellenistic period (ones with loculi) until the 4th century AD. Tumuli are found to be concentrated more in the southern and western necropolis. Until now only one tumulus has been excavated at Zeugma. A hypogeum consisting of two rock-cut chambers was discovered underneath this tumulus during the excavations that took place in 2006. Ornamental sarcophagi are only known to exist in the southern necropolis, while undecorated sarcophagi have been found both in the eastern and the southern necropoleis. The garland sarcophagi, which appear to be a local copy of Proconnesian sarcophagi, must be from the late 2nd–early 3rd century AD. The tomb stelai in Zeugma frequently use the eagle to symbolise men and the basket to symbolise women. In such portraits, figures are depicted alone, in couples, or as families. These portraits suggest that women in particular prefer Oriental elements, as seen in Palmyra, while men seem to prefer the Roman fashion. While inscriptions are mostly in Greek, there are also a small number in Latin. The inscriptions follow a standard template that includes the name of the deceased, name of the father and the expression “ἄλυπε χαῖρε”. Otherwise, information like date of death or age, and various words of consolation are rarely seen. The names on the inscriptions suggest that people of Semitic, Greco-Macedonian and Roman decent lived together in Zeugma. It is known that in some cases the mouth of the loculus was closed with tomb stelai, as seen in Palmyra. In addition, some stelai had been placed outside the tomb. Stele-shaped rock reliefs suggest that tomb stelai may have been used in the niches inside the chamber tomb. Tomb stelai were used frequently from the mid-1st century AD until the mid-3rd century AD. However, there is also an example from the 4th century AD. The citizens of Zeugma regarded their tombs as a domus aeterna – eternal residence with their frescos, stele-shaped tomb reliefs, statues and spaces that can be defined as the vestibulum and triclinium. It is possible that visitors came to the tombs for funerals, commemorations, and festivals to honour the deceased with ceremonies similar to those carried out at home. The portraits and names on the tomb stelai are particularly important indications about the origins of the city’s inhabitants. As for the self-portraits of the deceased, they feature both eastern and western characteristics. Information obtained on burial traditions from the Zeugma necropoleis suggests that this multi-cultural city was a place where different cultures interacted.
Anahtar Kelimeler
Kaynakça
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Ayrıntılar
Birincil Dil
İngilizce
Konular
Arkeoloji
Bölüm
Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar
Hüseyin Yaman
*
0000-0003-1693-6500
Türkiye
Yayımlanma Tarihi
18 Kasım 2019
Gönderilme Tarihi
18 Nisan 2019
Kabul Tarihi
10 Eylül 2019
Yayımlandığı Sayı
Yıl 2019 Sayı: 45