Yeni Savaşlar ve Çocuk Askerler

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1, 39 - 55, 30.04.2022

Canan Sağıroğlu

https://doi.org/10.18506/anemon.960839

Öz

Yeni savaşlar kavramı, Soğuk Savaş sonrası dönemin değişen özellikleri doğrultusunda ortaya çıkmıştır ve ilk olarak Mary Kaldor tarafından 1999 yılında kullanılmıştır. Geleneksel savaşlardan farklı olarak daha az maliyetle daha fazla kazanç elde etme hedefleri doğrultusunda yeni savaşların aktörlerinin çeşitli araçlar/yöntemler geliştirdikleri görülmektedir. Özellikle devlet dışı aktörler, hukuki anlamda bağlayıcı olabilecekleri yasaların eksikliğinden faydalanarak savaş suçu işlemektedirler. Geleneksel savaşlarda hukuken “korunan” statüsünde olan çocuklar, yeni savaşlarda devlet dışı aktörlerin doğrudan şiddetine/araçsallaştırılmasına maruz kalmışlardır. Çocuklar, devlet ve devlet dışı aktörlerin hedefleri doğrultusunda savaşlarda bazen bir savaşçı bazen de arka cephede hizmet personeli olarak kullanılmaktadır. Savaşlarda cephede ve cephe arkasında çalıştırılan veya görevlendirilen çocuklar, çocuk askerler olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Tarihsel süreçte çocukların savaşlarda yer alması ilk defa yeni savaşlarda ortaya çıkmış bir olgu değildir. Fakat hukuki olarak çocuk ve çocuk asker kavramlarının tanımlanması yirminci yüzyılda gerçekleşmiştir. Böylece savaşın değişen özellikleri itibariyle kavramsal ve hukuksal açıdan çocuk askerler yeni savaşların bir aracı haline gelmiştir. Çocuk askerler, yeni savaşların aktörleri için, maliyeti düşük ve gerek personel açığını gidermek gerekse de ideolojik hedeflerini gerçekleştirmek açısından kullanım alanı geniş bir savaş aracı haline gelmiştir. Çalışma çocuk askerlerin kullanılmasını yeni savaşlar bağlamında değerlendirmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

yeni savaşlar, Devlet ve Devlet dışı Aktörler, çocuk askerler

The New Wars and Child Soldiers

Öz

Concept of the new wars emerged in line with the changing characteristics of the post-Cold War era and was proposed originally by Mary Kaldor in 1999. Unlike traditional wars, the actors of new wars have been considered to develop various tools/methods in line with the goal of gaining more profit with less cost. In particular, non-state actors commit war crimes by taking advantage of the lack of laws that could be legally binding. Children who were legally "protected" in traditional wars have been exposed to direct violence/instrumentation by non-state actors in the new wars. Children are sometimes used as warriors and supporting service personnel in line with the goals of the state and non-state actors. Children who are employed or assigned in wars at the front or behind the front are defined as child soldiers. In history, the participation of children in wars is not a new phenomenon that has emerged for the first time in new wars. However, the legal definition of the concepts of child soldiers emerged in the twentieth century. Thus, due to the changing characteristics of war, child soldiers have become a tool of new wars in terms of conceptual and legal aspects. Child soldiers have become a tool of war for the actors of new wars, with a low cost and widely used in terms of both meeting the personnel shortage and implementing their ideological goals. The current study evaluates the issue of child soldiers in the context of the new wars.

Anahtar Kelimeler

The New Wars, State and Non-state Actors, child soldiers

Kaynakça

• A. Ereker, F. (Güz, 2004). İlkçağlardan Günümüze Haklı Savaş Kavramı. Uluslararası İlişkiler, 1(3), 1-36.
• Act to Protection Children, (February 2020). Office of Special Representative of Secretary-General of Children and Armed Conflict, “Practical guidance for mediators to protect children in situations of armed conflict”, United Nations, https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Practical-guidance-for-mediators-to-protect-children-in-situations-of-armed-conflict.pdf
• Aslan, M. Y. (2008). Savaş Hukukunun Temel Prensipleri. TBB Dergisi, Sayı: 79, 235-274.
• Bowyer, D. (2009). The Moral Dimension of Asymmetrical Warfare: Accountability, Culpability and Military Effectiveness. Th.A. Dr. van Baarda & D.E.M. Verweij (Eds.) The Moral Dimension of Asymmetrical Warfare, Counter-terrorism, Democratic Values and Military Ethics içinde (ss: 135-167). Leiden: Nijhoff.
• Brigety II, R.& Stohl, R. (2007). Just War Theory and Child Soldiers. Michael W. Brough, John W. Lango & Harry van der Linden (Eds). Rethinking the Just War Tradition içinde (ss. 131-146). New York: State University of New York Press.
• Cevizci, A. (2000). Felsefe Terimler Sözlüğü. İstanbul: Paradigma Yayınları. Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers, Child Soldiers Global Report 2004, March 2004.
• Culha Zabcı, F. (2004). Yeni Savaşların Gizli Yüzü: Özel Askeri Şirketler. Mülkiye Dergisi, 28(243), 21-49.
• Demir, F. (2018). Afrika’da Çocuk Askerler: Sorunsalın Siyasal ve Sosyal Kökenleri. (Erişim: 21.06.2021) https://afam.org.tr/afrikada-cocuk-askerler-sorunsalin-siyasal-ve-sosyal-kokenleri/
• Denov, M. (2004). Child Soldiers and Iconography: Portrayals and (Mis) Representations. Children & Society, Vol:26, 280–292.
• Duffield, M. (2001). Global Governance and the New Wars The Merging of Development and Security, London: Zed Book.
• Elibol, A. (2009). Yeniçeriler ve İktidar Bağlamında Osmanlı Sisteminin Dönüşümü. Akademik Bakış, 3(5), 22-40.
• Ergün, O. (2018). Ağ Tabanlı Küresel İç Savaş. Timuçin Kodaman & Emel İştar Işıklı (Ed.) Sosyal, Beşeri ve İdari Bilimlerde Akademik Çalışmalar-3 içinde (ss. 119-143) Ankara: Gece Kitaplığı.
• Fleming, C. M. (2009). New or Old Wars? Debating a Clausewitzian Future. Journal of Strategic Studies, 32(2), 213-241. Freedman, L. (2006). Asymmetric war. The Adelphi Papers, 45(379), 49-60.
• Gray, C. H. (1997). Post-Modern War: The New Politics of Conflicts. London and New York: Routledge.
• Heinze, E. A. (2009). Private Military Companies, Just War, and Humanitarian Intervention, Ethics. Eric A. Heinze & Brent J. Steele (Eds), Authority, and War Non-state Actors and the Just War Tradition içinde (123-150). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Hille, P. (2016). 14 ülkede çocuk askerler savaşıyor. (Erişim:21.06.2021). https://www.dw.com/tr/14-%C3%BClkede-%C3%A7ocuk-askerler-sava%C5%9F%C4%B1yor/a-19044420
• Holsti, K. J. (1991). Peace and War: Armed Conflicts and International Order, 1648–1989. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Human Rights Council. (2018). “I lost my dignity”: Sexual and gender-based violence in the Syrian Arab Republic. (No: A/HRC/37//CRP.3). (Erişim: 14.10.2021) https://ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/CoISyria/A-HRC-37-CRP-3.pdf
• Kaldor, M. (1999). New and Old Wars, Organized Violence in a Global Era. California: Stanford University Press.
• Kaldor, M.(2005). Elaborating The ‘New War’ Thesis. Isabelle Duyvesteyn & Jan Angstrom (Eds). Rethinking The Nature Of War içinde, (ss. 210-224), New York: Frank Cass.
• Kaldor, M. (2007). New and Old Wars, 2. Edition, California: Stanford University Press.
• Kaldor, M. (2013). In Defence of New Wars. Stability, 2( 1), 1-16.
• Kekevi, S. & Kılıçoğlu, G. (2016). Uluslararası Hukuk Açısından Çocuk Askerler ve Pkk’nın Çocuk Askerleri/Militanları. Ankara Barosu Dergisi, 2016 (3), 483-509.
• Laqueur, W. (1996). Postmodern Terrorism. Foreign Affairs, September/October.
• Lee-Koo, K. (2011). Horror and Hope: (re)presenting militarised children in global North–South relations. Third World Quarterly, 32(4), 725-742.
• Lind, W.S. (2004). Understanding Fourth Generation War. Military Review, September –October, 12-16.
• Malantowicz, A. (2013). Civil War in Syria and the “New Wars” Debate. Amsterdam Law Forum, 5(3), 52–60.
• Münkler, H. (2010). Yeni Savaşlar, (Zehra Aksu Yılmazer, Çev.), İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
• O’driscoll, C. (2009). From Versailles to 9/11: Non-state Actors and Just War in the Twentieth Century. Eric A. Heinze & Brent J. Steele (Eds), Ethics, Authority, and War Non-state Actors and the Just War Tradition içinde (ss. 21-45) New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Polat, O. & Güldoğan, E. (2010). Çocuk Askerler: Psikolojik, Sosyal ve Fiziksel Sorunlar. Uluslararası Güvenlik ve Terörizm Dergisi, 1(1), 105-124.
• Security Council (1999). Resolution 1261 (1999) Adopted by the Security Council at its 4037th meeting, on 25 August 1999. https://undocs.org/S/RES/1261(1999)
• Security Council (2000). Resolution 1314 (2000) Adopted by the Security Council at its 4185th meeting, on 11 August 2000. (Erişim: 08.05.2021), https://undocs.org/S/RES/1314(2000)
• Security Council (2001). Resolution 1379 (2001) Adopted by the Security Council at its 4423rd meeting, on 20 November 2001. (Erişim: 05.05.2021), https://undocs.org/S/RES/1379(2001)
• Security Council (2003). Resolution 1460 (2003) Adopted by the Security Council at its 4695th meeting, on 30 January 2003. (Erişim: 06.05.2021), https://undocs.org/S/RES/1460(2003)
• Security Council (2005). Resolution 1612 (2005) Adopted by the Security Council at its 5235th meeting, on 26 July 2005. (Erişim: 08.06.2021), https://undocs.org/S/RES/1612(2005)
• Security Council, (2009). Resolution 1882 (2009) Adopted by the Security Council at its 6176th meeting, on 4 August 2009. (Erişim: 08.05.2021), https://undocs.org/S/RES/1882(2009)
• Security Council (2011). Resolution 1998 (2011) Adopted by the Security Council at its 6581st meeting, on 12 July 2011. (Erişim: 07.06.2021) https://undocs.org/S/RES/1998(2011)
• Security Council (2014). Resolution 2143 (2014) Adopted by the Security Council at its 7129th meeting, on 7 March 2014. (Erişim: 03.05.2021), https://undocs.org/S/RES/2143(2014)
• Security Council (2015). Resolution 2225 (2015) Adopted by the Security Council at its 7466th meeting, on 18 June 2015. (Erişim: 09.05.2021), https://undocs.org/S/RES/2225(2015)
• Security Council (March 12, 2016). Topic: Child Soldiers, UNA-MN Child Soldiers High School Conference at Humphrey School of Public Affairs.
• Security Council (2018). Resolution 2427 (2018) Adopted by the Security Council at its 8305th meeting, on 9 July 2018. (Erişim: 09.05.2021), https://undocs.org/en/S/RES/2427(2018)
• Security Council (2020). Children and armed conflict, Report of the Secretary-General. 9 June 2020. (Erişim: 01.07.2021), https://www.un.org/sg/sites/www.un.org.sg/files/atoms/files/15-June-2020_Secretary-General_Report_on_CAAC_Eng.pdf
• Soysa, I. D. (2016). Capitalism & the “new wars”: free markets and societal insecurity before and after the cold war, 1970–2013. Civil Wars, 18(1), 1-24.
• Sümer, F. (2018). PYD/YPG’nin Çocuk Askerleri, SETA, 2018 (237).
• Tangör, B. &Yalçınkaya, H. (2010). Güvenlik Yönetişimi Çerçevesinde Özel Askeri Şirketler. Uluslararası İlişkiler, 7(25), 127–154.
• Tiefenbrun, S. (2007). Child Soldiers, Slavery and the Trafficking of Children. Fordham International Law Journal, 31(2), 413-486.
• Tynes, R. & Early, B. R. (2015). Governments, Rebels, and the Use of Child Soldiers in Internal Armed Conflicts: A Global Analysis, 1987–2007. Peace Economics, Peace Science, and Public Policy, 21(1), 79–110.
• UNICEF (27-30 April, 1997). Cape Town Principles, South Africa. (Erişim: 07.06.2021), http://www.nuhanovicfoundation.org/en/legal-instruments/cape-town-principles-and-best-practices/
• UNICEF (2002). The State of The World’s Children, (Erişim: 07.07.2021), https://www.unicef.org/media/84786/file/SOWC-2002.pdfUNICEF
• UNICEF (3 Eylül 2020). Silahlı kuvvetler tarafından askere alınan çocuklar. (Erişim: 03.07.2021), https://www.unicef.org/protection/children-recruited-by-armed-forces
• United Nations (June 9, 2020). Children and armed conflict. General Assembly Security Council Seventy-fourth session, Seventy-fifth year. (A/74/845–S/2020/525).
• USHMM, Holokost Dönemi Çocukları. (Erişim: 10.10.2021), https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/tr/article/children-during-the-holocaust
• Vinci, Anthony (2005). The Strategic Use of Fear by the Lord's Resistance Army. Small Wars & Insurgencies, 16(3), 360-381.
• Ycaza, C. D. (2013). A Search for Truth: A Critical Analysis of the Liberian Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Human Rights Review, No: 14, 189–212.