Çatışma ve Barış Tesisi Süreçlerinde Çocukların Devşirilmesi ve Kullanılması Sorunu: Kolombiya Örneği

Yıl 2023, , 22 - 53, 15.02.2023

Onur Ağkaya

https://doi.org/10.53376/ap.2023.02

Öz

Çocukların, dünya üzerinde devam eden çatışmalardan etkilenmeleri ve silahlı gruplar tarafından devşirilerek kullanılmaları, uluslararası toplumun en acil sorunlarındandır. Yaklaşık 60 yıldan fazladır devam eden Kolombiya İç Savaşı örneğinde de milyonlarca çocuk çatışmaların kurbanı olmuş ve silahlı aktörler tarafından kullanılmıştır ve kullanılmaya devam etmektedir. Bu çalışma, Kolombiya’daki çatışmanın muhtemel seyri, çatışmanın çözümü ve barışın tesisi için odaklanılması gereken en önemli hususlarından biri olan çocuk savaşçılar sorununa dair bir analiz sunmaktadır. Bu doğrultuda, çalışma, çocuk savaşçılar kavramı ve ilgili yaklaşımları ele almaktadır. Daha sonra, çalışmada, Kolombiya İç Savaşı’nda çözüm süreci ve barış tesisi girişimlerinde çocuk savaşçılar sorununa yönelik değerlendirmelerde bulunulmaktadır. Bu bağlamda, çalışma, Kolombiya örneğinin birçok eksiklik ve başarısızlığa rağmen bugün gelinen noktada çatışmanın sonlandırılması, savaşta kullanılan ve silah bırakan çocukların toplumla yeniden bütünleştirilmesi için birçok fırsat barındırdığını ve dünyaya örnek teşkil edecek uygulamalar sunduğunu savunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Çocuk Savaşçılar, Çatışma Çözümü, Barış Tesisi, Kolombiya, Kolombiya Barış Süreci

Problem of Child Recruitment and Use During Conflicts and Peace Building Processes: The Colombian Case

Öz

The effects of ongoing conflicts on children and child recruitment and deployment by armed actors around the world are the most urgent problems of the international society. In the case of the Colombian Civil War, which has been going on for more than 60 years, millions of children have been victims of conflicts and have been used and continue to be used by armed actors. This study presents an analysis of child fighters, as one of the most critical issues to focus on for the probable course of the conflict, conflict resolution, and peace-building in Colombia. In this respect, the study first delves into the concept of child fighters and related approaches. In the study, the problem of child fighters in the resolution process and peace-building initiatives in the Colombian Civil War is scrutinized in detail. Correspondingly, the study argues that, despite many shortcomings and failures, the Colombian example presents numerous opportunities to end the conflict and reintegrate demobilized child soldiers into society at the point reached today as it also provides practices that will constitute exemplary sets for the world.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Child Fighters, Conflict Resolution, Peace Building, Colombia, Colombian Peace Process

Kaynakça

• Achvarina, Vera ve Simon F. Reich (2006), “No Place to Hide: Refugees, Displaced Persons, and the Recruitment of Child Soldiers”, International Security, 31 (1): 127-164.
• Acosta-Navas, Diana ve Carlos F. Reyes (2018), “From combatants’ boots Reincorporation and reconciliation”, Pabón, Fabio A. (Der.), Truth, Justice and Reconciliation in Colombia, Transitioning from Violence (New York: Routledge): 119-135.
• Ağkaya, Onur (2021), “Kolombiya: İki Yüzyıla Yayılan Çatışma ve Çözüm Süreci”, Şeyşane, G. Tanrıverdi (Der.), Silahlı Çatışmaların Çözümü Mümkün mü? Dünyadan Örneklerle Barış Süreçleri (Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi): 163-192.
• Ağkaya, Onur (2022), “Polis Teşkilatı ve Rolünün Paramilitarizasyonu: Kolombiya’da Polis Şiddetinin 2021 Protestolarına Etkileri”, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 24 (3): 1065-1094.
• Amnesty International (2004): “Colombia: “Scarred bodies, hidden crimes”: Sexual Violence against women in the armed conflict”, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr23/040/2004/en/ (24.07. 2022).
• Amnesty International (2004): “Colombia: The Victims and Land Restitution Law: An Amnesty International analysis”, https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/amr23/018/2012/en/ (12.07.2021).
• BBC (2022a): “Gustavo Petro: Colombia elects ex-rebel as first left-wing president”, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-61860887 (27.08.2022).
• BBC (2022b): “Colombia: New left-wing leader wants global drugs rethink”, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-62460534 (27.08.2022).
• Beber, Bernd ve Christopher Blattman (2013), “The Logic of Child Soldiering and Coercion”, International Organization, 67 (1): 65-104.
• BM Çocuklar ve Silahlı Çatışmalar Özel Temsilciliği Ofisi (2022), “The mandate of the Special Representative”, https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/about/the-mandate/ (22.06.2022).
• BM (2016), “Colombia: agreement to reintegrate children from FARC welcomed by UN envoy”, https://news.un.org/en/story/2016/05/529362-colombia-agreement-reintegrate-children-farc-welcomed-un-envoy#.WV-e7ITyiUk (22.07.2022).
• BM (2011), “Disarmament, demobilization and reintegration Report of the Secretary-General”, https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/700920 (22.07.2022).
• BM (2014), “Operational Guide to the Integrated Disarmament, Demobilization and Reintegration Standards”, https://www.unddr.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Operational-Guide-to-the-IDDRS-2014.pdf (20.07.2022).
• BM (2022): “Children and armed conflict in Colombia – Report of the Secretary-General (S/2021/1022)”, https://reliefweb.int/report/colombia/children-and-armed-conflict-colombia-report-secretary-general-s20211022 (24.07.2022).
• Burnyeat, Gwen (2020), “Peace Pedagogy and Interpretative Frameworks of Distrust: State–Society Relations in the Colombian Peace Process”, Bulletin of Latin American Research, 39 (1): 39-52.
• Campbell, Susanna P., Michael Findley ve Kyosuke Kikuta (2017), “An Ontology of Peace: Landscapes of Conflict and Cooperation with Application to Colombia”, International Studies Review, 19 (1): 92-113.
• Carranza-Franco, Francy (2019), Demobilisation and Reintegration in Colombia: Building State and Citizenship (New York: Routledge).
• Centro Nacional de Memoria Histórica (CNMH) (2017), Una Guerra sin edad. Informe Nacional de Reclutamiento y Utilización de Niños, Niñas y Adolescentes en el Conflicto Armado Colombiano (Bogotá, CNMH).
• Charles, Mathew (2022), “La niñez reclutada. La participación de niños, niñas y adolescentes en el crimen organizado y conflict después del Acuerdo de Paz”, Documentos OCCO, The Colombian Observatory of Organized Crime Working Paper Series Number 4, Bogotá, Universidad del Rosario.
• Charles, Mathew ve Karen Fowler-Watt (2022), “The Tree of Love: Life Writing and ‘Seasons of Self’ by Former Child Soldiers in Colombia”, Life Writing, 19(3): 373-393.
• Child Soldiers International (2012), “Louder than words: An agenda for action to end state use of child soldiers”, https://www.ohchr.org/sites/default/files/Documents/Issues/RuleOfLaw/ArmsTransfers/ChildSoldiersInternational_2.pdf (22.06.2022).
• Child Soldiers International, (2018), “Annual Report 2017-2018”, https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/CSI_annual_report_2018.pdf (17.11.2020).
• CNN (2019): “Corte Constitucional de Colombia rechaza objeciones de Duque sobre la ley estatutaria de la JEP, ¿qué significa?”, https://cnnespanol.cnn.com/2019/05/30/corte-constitucional-de-colombia-rechaza-objeciones-de-duque-sobre-la-ley-estatutaria-de-la-jep-que-significa/ (07.06.2022).
• Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2006), “Child soldiers and Disarmament, Demobilization, Rehabilitation and Reintegration in West Africa A survey of programmatic work on child soldiers in Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Liberia and Sierra Leone”, https://au.int/sites/default/files/documents/38962-doc-118._child_soldiers_and_disarmament_demobilization_rehabilitation_and_reintegration_in_west_africa.pdf (20.06.2020).
• Coalition to Stop the Use of Child Soldiers (2008), “Global Report 2008”, https://reliefweb.int/report/world/child-soldiers-global-report-2008 (22.07.2022).
• Comisión de la Verdad (CDV) (2022a), “Hay Futuro Si Hay Verdad”, https://www.comisiondelaverdad.co/hay-futuro-si-hay-verdad (17.07.2022).
• Comisión de la Verdad (CDV) (2022b), “No es un Mal Menor: Niñas, niños y adolescentes en el conflicto armado”, https://www.comisiondelaverdad.co/hay-futuro-si-hay-verdad (17.07.2022).
• Cortes, Liliana ve Marla Buchanan (2007), “The Experience of Columbian Child Soldiers from a Resilience Perspective”, International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 29: 43-55.
• Dallaire, Roméo (2011), They Fight Like Soldiers, They Die Like Children: The Global Quest to Eradicate the Use of Child Soldiers (New York: Walker and Company).
• Pabón, Fabio A. (2018), “Transitional justice and the ‘Colombian peace process’”, Pabón, Fabio A. (Der.), Truth, Justice and Reconciliation in Colombia, Transitioning from Violence (New York: Routledge): 1-12.
• Dupuy, Kendra ve Krijn Peters (2010), War and Children: A Reference Handbook (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO).
• El Espectador (2020), “Con dineros de la paz, Duque contrata firma que financió el No en el plebiscito”, https://www.elespectador.com/colombia-20/paz-y-memoria/con-dineros-de-la-paz-duque-contrata-firma-que-financio-el-no-en-el-plebiscito-article/ (22.05.2021).
• El Tiempo (1998), “Los Niños Colombianos, Postulados al Nobel de Paz”, https://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/MAM-770498 (23.07.2022).
• Fisher, Kirsten (2013), “Transitional Justice for Child Soldiers: Accountability and Social Reconstruction in Post-Conflict Contexts (New York: Palgrave Macmillan).
• Gates, Scott (2011), “Why Do Children Fight? Motivations and the Mode of Recruitment”, Özerdem, Alpaslan ve Sukanya Podder (Der.), Child Soldiers: From Recruitment to Reintegration (New York: Palgrave Macmillan): 29-49.
• Global Coalition for Reintegration of Child Soldiers (2021), “Gaps and Needs for Successful Reintegration of Children Associated with Armed Groups or Armed Forces”, https://childrenandarmedconflict.un.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/07/Gaps-and-needs-for-Successful-Reintegration-of-CAFAAG.pdf (15.06.2021).
• Goodwin-Gill, Guy ve Ilene Cohn (1994), Child Soldiers: The Role of Children in Armed Conflict (New York: Clarendon).
• Grupo de Memoria Histórica (GMH) (2013), ¡BASTA YA! Colombia: Memorias de Guerra y Dignidad (Bogotá: Imprenta Nacional).
• Haer, Roos ve Tobias Böhmelt (2016), “The impact of child soldiers on rebel groups’ fighting capacities”, Conflict Management and Peace Science, 33 (2): 153–173.
• Higgs, Johanna (2020), Militarized Youth The Children of the FARC (Cham: Palgrave Macmillan).
• Human Rights Watch (2008), “Breaking the Grip? Obstacles to Justice for Paramilitary Mafias in Colombia”, https://www.hrw.org/report/2008/10/16/breaking-grip/obstacles-justice-paramilitary-mafias-colombia (08.07.2020).
• Hurtado, Mónica, Ángela Dosdad ve Sergio Gómez-Hernández (2018), “The relationship between human trafficking and child recruitment in the Colombian armed conflict”, Third World Quarterly, 39 (5): 941-958.
• International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) (2022), “Colombia”, https://www.icrc.org/en/where-we-work/americas/colombia (12.06.2022).
• Jurisdicción Especial para la Paz (JEP) (2016), “Acuerdo Final para la Terminación del Conflicto y la Construcción de una Paz Estable y Duradera”, https://www.jep.gov.co/Normativa/Paginas/Acuerdo-Final.aspx (25.07.2022).
• Jurisdicción Especial para la Paz (JEP) (2022a), “Victimización de miembros de la Unión Patriótica”, https://www.jep.gov.co/especiales1/macrocasos/06.html (24.07.2022).
• Jurisdicción Especial para la Paz (JEP) (2022b), “Reclutamiento y utilización de niñas y niños en el conflicto armado”, https://www.jep.gov.co/especiales1/macrocasos/07.html (24.07.2022).
• Kaldor, Mary (2012), New & Old Wars: Organised Violence in a Global Era, (Cambridge: Polity Press).
• Kamara, Mohamed (2019), “In Search of the Lost Kingdom of Childhood”, Drumbl, Mark ve Jastine Barrett (Der.), Research Handbook on Child Soldiers (Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing): 28-51.
• Kamya, Sarah (2012), “Resettlement of Abducted Girls in Northern Uganda: The Case of Gulu District”, Africa Peace and Conflict Journal, 5 (2): 67–78.
• Kanada Dışişleri Bakanlığı (2022), “The Vancouver Principles on Peacekeeping and the Prevention of the Recruitment and Use of Child Soldiers”, https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/human_rights-droits_homme/principles-vancouver-principes-pledge-engageons.aspx?lang=eng (26.07.2022).
• Kekevi, Serkan ve Gökmen Kılıçoğlu (2016), “Uluslararası Hukuk Açısından Çocuk Askerler ve PKK’nın Çocuk Askerleri/Militanları”, Ankara Barosu Dergisi, 3: 483-510.
• Kieh, George Klay (2016), “Civilians and Civil Wars in Africa: The Cases of Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Côte D'Ivoire”, Peace Research, 48 (1/2): 203-228.
• Kiss, Alexandra (2016), “Innocence Lost: The Case of Child Combatants in Colombia and their Reintegration”, Sharma, Vibha ve Ashlie Brink (Der.), Childhood through the Looking Glass (Brill): 211-222.
• Lee, Sabine (2017), Children Born of War in the Twentieth Century (Manchester: Manchester University Press).
• LeGrand, Catherine, Luis van Isschot ve Pilar Riaño-Alcalá (2017), “Land, justice, and memory: challenges for peace in Colombia”, Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 42 (3): 259-276.
• Maher, David ve Andrew Thomson (2018), “A precarious peace? The threat of paramilitary violence to the peace process in Colombia”, Third World Quarterly, 39 (11): 2142-2172.
• María-Jiménez, Ana (2019), “Challenges for the protection of child victims of recruitment and use in an era of complex armed conflicts: the Colombian case”, Drumbl, Mark ve Jastine Barrett (Der.), Research Handbook on Child Soldiers (Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing): 52-73.
• Martuscelli, Nabuco ve Duarte Villa (2018), “Child soldiers as peace-builders in Colombian peace talks between the government and the FARC–EP”, Conflict, Security & Development, 18 (5): 387-408.
• Mochmann, Ingvill (2017), “Children Born of War– A Decade of International and Interdisciplinary Research”, https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/handle/document/51163 (24.07.2022).
• Nussio, Enzo (2011), “How ex-combatants talk about personal security: Narratives of former paramilitaries in Colombia”, Conflict, Security & Development, 11 (5): 579-606.
• Orejuela, Luis ve Lina Restrepo-Plaza (2021), “Reintegration and forgiveness to ex-combatants in Colombia”, Development Studies Research, 8 (1): 36-48.
• Özerdem, Alpaslan ve Sukanya Podder (2011), “The Long Road Home: Conceptual Debates on Recruitment Experiences and Reintegration Outcomes”, Özerdem, Alpaslan ve Sukanya Podder (Der.), Child Soldiers: From Recruitment to Reintegration (New York: Palgrave Macmillan): 3-26.
• Özerdem, Alpaslan ve Sukanya Podder (2015), Youth in Conflict and Peacebuilding: Mobilization, Reintegration and Reconciliation (New York: Palgrave Macmillan).
• Özerdem, Füsun (2021), “Ordu ve Devlet Dışı Silahlı Grupların Çocuk Asker Kullanımı”, Barış Araştırmaları ve Çatışma Çözümleri Dergisi, 9 (2): 256-294.
• Peace Insight (2022), “Colombia”, https://www.peaceinsight.org/conflicts/colombia/ (08.07.2022).
• Piva, Benedetta, Lachlan Kerr ve Reetinder Chowdhary (2021), “Child Soldiers In Colombia: The Latest Threat To Colombian Peace”, https://www.counterterrorismgroup.com/post/child-soldiers-in-colombia-the-latest-threat-to-colombian-peace (24.07.2022).
• Polat, Oğuz ve Evin Güldoğan (2010), “Çocuk Askerler: Psikolojik, Sosyal ve Fiziksel Sorunlar”, Uluslararası Güvenlik ve Terörizm Dergisi, 1 (1): 105-124.
• Rochlin, James (2020), “Re-imagining Colombia’s new security landscape in the wake of the FARC Peace Accord”, Small Wars&Insurgencies, 31 (1): 181-203.
• Rosen, David M. (2005), Armies of the Young: Child Soldiers in War and Terrorism (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press).
• Rosen, David M. (2015), Child Soldiers in the Western Imagination: From Patriots to Victims (New Jersey: Rutgers University Press).
• Rubio, Rocío (2022), “Los menores de edad al servicio de la guerra: un crimen que se mantiene”, El Tiempo, https://www.eltiempo.com/justicia/conflicto-y-narcotrafico/reclutamiento-de-menores-en-colombia-un-crimen-que-se-mantiene-654611 (24.07.2022).
• Sanchez-Parra, Tatiana (2018), “The Hollow Shell: Children Born of War and the Realities of the Armed Conflict in Colombia”, International Journal of Transitional Justice, 12: 45–63.
• Save the Children (2022): “2021 Annual Report”, https://www.savethechildren.org/us/about-us/resource-library/annual-report (20.06.2022).
• Schauer, Elisabeth ve Thomas Elbert (2010), “The Psychological Impact of Child Soldiering”, Martz, Erin (Der.), Trauma Rehabilitation After War and Conflict: Community and Individual Perspectives (New York: Springer): 311-360.
• Semana (2020), “Masacres: “¿por qué no se detiene la barbarie?”, https://www.semana.com/nacion/articulo/masacres-por-que-no-se-detiene-la-barbarie/202000/ (22.07.2022).
• Singer, Peter W. (2005), Children at War (New York, Pantheon Books).
• Tapias, C. de Gamboa ve F. Andrés Pabón (2018), “The Transitional Justice Framework agreed between the Colombian Government and the FARC—EP”, Pabón, F. Andrés (Der.), Truth, Justice and Reconciliation in Colombia, Transitioning from Violence (New York: Routledge): 66-84.
• Thoene, Ulf, Roberto G. Alonso ve Camila Andrea Bernal (2020), “Memory and Trauma: Soldier Victims in the Colombian Armed Conflict”, SAGE Open, 10 (3): 1-12.
• Tynes, Robert (2018), Tools of War, Tools of State: When Children Become Soldiers (New York: State University of New York Press).
• Uluslararası Kurtarma Komitesi (2022): “Emergency Watchlist: System Failure”, https://www.rescue.org/sites/default/files/document/6423/cs2201watchlistreportfinal.pdf (12.07.2022).
• UN Verification Mission in Colombia (2014), “Executive Summary”, http://pksoi.armywarcollege.edu/default/assets/File/(180130)%20Peacekeeping%20and%20Stability%20Operations%20Institute%20UN%20Verification%20Mission%20Colombia%20Estimate.pdf (05.07.2020).
• UNICEF (2020), “Who is a child soldier?”, https://www.unicef.org/emergencies/index_childsoldiers.html (14.11.2020).
• UNICEF (2021), “Súmate Por Mí: Boletínes”, https://www.unicef.org/colombia/informes/sumate-por-mi (12.06.2022).
• UNICEF (2022), “Prospects for Children in 2022: A Global Outlook”, https://www.unicef.org/globalinsight/media/2471/file/UNICEF-Global-Insight-Prospects-for-Children-Global-Outlook-2022.pdf (19.07.2022).
• Vastapuu, Leena (2019), “How to Find the ‘Hidden’ Girl Soldier? Two Sets of Suggestions Arising from Liberia”, Drumbl, Mark ve Jastine Barrett (Der.), Research Handbook on Child Soldiers (Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing): 493-511.
• Velásquez-Ruiz, Marco (2018), “The Emergence and Consolidation of Transitional Justice within the Realm of Colombian Peacebuilding”, Pabón, Fabio A. (Der.), Truth, Justice and Reconciliation in Colombia: Transitioning from Violence (New York: Routledge).
• Verdad Abierta (2016), “Desvinculación de niños combatientes: errores para no repetir”, https://verdadabierta.com/desvinculacion-de-ninos-combatientes-errores-para-no-repetir/ (04.07.2022).
• Verdad Abierta (2020), “¿De Dónde Vienen las Balas Contra los Líderes Sociales?”, https://verdadabierta.com/especiales-v/2020/de-donde-vienen-las-balas/ (12.07.2022).
• Verdad Abierta (2021a), “Radiografía de los 30 grupos surgidos tras el desarme de las Farc”, https://verdadabierta.com/radiografia-de-los-30-grupos-surgidos-tras-el-desarme-de-las-farc/?sf_paged=4 (22.07. 2022).
• Verdad Abierta (2021b), “Seguridad de excombatientes: una deuda que ha cobrado 290 vidas”, https://verdadabierta.com/seguridad-de-excombatientes-una-deuda-que-ha-cobrado-290-vidas/?sf_paged=2 (22.07.2022).
• Wessells, Michael (2019), “Do No Harm: How Reintegration Programmes for Former Child Soldiers Can Cause Unintended Harm”, Drumbl, Mark ve Jastine Barrett (Der.), Research Handbook on Child Soldiers (Northampton: Edward Elgar Publishing): 471-492.