Travma Sonrası Büyümeyi Etkileyen Faktörler

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 8 Sayı: 2, 109 - 126, 30.12.2025

Elmas Merve Malas , Elif Can Sünbül

https://doi.org/10.54186/arhuss.1741986

Öz

Travma, bireyin gerçek bir ölüm ya da ölüm tehdidi yaşaması; ağır yaralanma/bedensel bütünlüğe yönelik bir tehditle veya cinsel istismarla karşı karşıya gelmesi ya da bunlara şahit olmasıdır. Travmatik yaşantılar, aniden gelir, belirsizdir; insanlarda korku ve dehşetin uç noktalarının yaşanmasına neden olur. Travmatik olaylar acıya, sıkıntıya ve travma sonrası stres bozukluğuna neden olabildiği gibi travma sonrası büyüme ve gelişmeyi de sağlayabilir. Travmatik olayla mücadele ile bu mücadelenin sonucu olarak ortaya çıkan pozitif değişimler ve edinimler, travma sonrası büyüme ve gelişme olarak adlandırılmaktadır. Travma sonrası büyüme ve gelişme kavramı, zorlu bir yaşam olayı ile mücadele etmenin sonucunda bireyde meydana gelen olumlu değişimleri ifade etmektedir. Bu çalışmada travma sonrası büyüme ve gelişme kavramı; kuramsal çerçevesi, alt boyutları, etkileyen ve benzer faktörlerle birlikte ele alınmıştır. Travma sonrası büyümenin anlaşılması travmaya yapılacak müdahaleler açısından önemlidir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

travma , travma sonrası büyüme , travma sonrası büyümeyi etkileyen faktörler

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT AFTER TRAUMA

Öz

Trauma is when an individual experiences actual death or the threat of death, Encountering or witnessing a serious injury/threat to physical integrity or sexual abuse. Traumatic experiences come suddenly and are uncertain; It causes people to experience extreme levels of fear and terror. Traumatic events can cause pain, distress, and post-traumatic stress disorder, as well as post-traumatic growth and development. The struggle with the traumatic event and the positive changes and acquisitions that occur because of this struggle are called post-traumatic growth and development. The concept of post-traumatic growth and development refers to the positive changes that occur in the individual because of coping with a difficult life event. In this study, the concept of post-traumatic growth and development is discussed along with its theoretical framework, sub-dimensions, influencing and similar factors. Understanding post-traumatic growth is important for interventions related to trauma.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Trauma , Post-Traumatic Growth , Factors Affecting Post-Traumatic Growth and Development.

Kaynakça

• Abraido-Lanza AF, Guier C, Colon RM. (1998). Psychological thriving among Latinas with chronic illness. Journal of Social Issues, 54, 405-24.
• Agaibi, C. E., & Wilson, J. P. (2005). Trauma, PTSD, and resilience: A review of the literature. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 6(3), 195-216.
• Almedom, A. M. (2004). Factors that mitigate war-induced anxiety and mental distress. Journal of Biosocial Science, 36(4), 445-461.
• Almeida, M., Ramos, C., Maciel, L., Basto-Pereira, M., & Leal, I. (2022). Meaning in life, meaning-making and posttraumatic growth in cancer patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 995981.
• Altınsoy, F. (2020). Travmatik deneyimi olan bireyler için bir travma sonrası büyüme modeli. [Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi]. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi.
• Amirkhan, J. H., & Greaves, H. (2003). Sense of coherence and stress: The mechanics of a healthy disposition. Psychology and Health, 18(1), 31-62.
• Andrykowski MA, Curran SL, Studts JL, Cunningham L, Carpenter JS, McGrath PC, Sloan DA, Kenady DE. (1996). Psychosocial adjustment and quality of life in women with breast cancer and benign breast problems: a controlled comparison. J Clin Epidemiol, 49(8), 827-34. doi: 10.1016/0895-4356(96)00028-5.
• Antonovsky, A. (1984). A call for a new question—salutogenesis—and a proposedanswer—the sense of coherence. Journal of Preventive Psychiatry, 2, 1–13.
• APA (American Psychiatric Association) (1980). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
• APA (American Psyhiatric Association) (2022). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed. revised). Washington, DC: Author.
• APA (Amerikan Psikiyatri Birliği) (2013). Ruhsal bozuklukların tanısal ve sayımsal elkitabı, Beşinci Baskı (DSM-5), Tanı ölçütleri başvuru elkitabı. Hekimler Yayın Birliği: Ankara.
• Armstrong, D., & Shakespeare-Finch, J. (2011). Relationship to the bereaved and perceptions of severity of trauma differentiate elements of posttraumatic growth. OMEGA-Journal of Death and Dying, 63(2), 125-140.
• Arya, B., & Davidson, C. (2015). Sense of coherence as a predictor of post traumatic growth. Indian Journal of Health & Wellbeing, 6(6), 634-636.
• Augustine, A. A., & Larsen, R. J. (2012). Is a trait really the mean of states? Similarities and differences between traditional and aggregate assessments of personality. Journal of Individual Differences, 33(3), 131–137. https://doi.org/10.1027/1614-0001/a000083
• Barskova, T., & Oesterreich, R. (2009). Post-traumatic growth in people living with a serious medical condition and its relations to physical and mental health: A systematic review. Disability and Rehabilitation, 31(21), 1709–1733. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638280902738441
• Bartone, P. T., & Bowles, S. V. (2021). Hardiness predicts post-traumatic growth and well-being in severely wounded servicemen and their spouses. Military medicine, 186(5-6), 500-504.
• Bellizzi, K.M., Blank, T.O. (2006). Predicting posttraumatic growth in breast cancer survivors. Health Psychology, 25(1), 47.
• Benet-Martínez, V., & John, O. P. (1998). Los Cinco Grandes across cultures and ethnic groups: Multitrait-multimethod analyses of the Big Five in Spanish and English. Journal of personality and social psychology, 75(3), 729.
• Bensimon M. (2012). Elaboration on the association between trauma, PTSD and posttraumatic growth: The role of trait resilience. Personality and Individual Differences, 52(7), 782-787.
• Birgit Kleim and Anke Ehlers, (2009). Evidence for a Curvilinear Relationship Between Posttraumatic Growth and Posttrauma Depression and PTSD in Assault Survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22, (1), 45–52
• Bolu, A., Erdem, M., & Öznur, T. (2014). Travma Sonrası Stres Bozukluğu. Anatolian Journal of Clinical Investigation, 8(2).
• Bonanno, G. A., Wortman, C. B., & Nesse, R. M. (2004). Prospective patterns of resilience and maladjustment during widowhood. Psychology and aging, 19(2), 260.
• Bossick B.E. (2008). An Empirical Examination of The Relationship Between Posttraumatic Growth and The Personality Traits of Hardiness, Sense of Coherence, Locus of Control, Self-Efficacy, Resilience, and Optimism. Dissertation Degree Doctor of Philosophy, The Graduate Faculty of The University of Akron.
• Brockhouse, R., Msetfi, R. M., Cohen, K., & Joseph, S. (2011). Vicarious exposure to trauma and growth in therapists: The moderating effects of sense of coherence, organizational support, and empathy. Journal of traumatic stress, 24(6), 735-742.
• Bussell, V. A. ve Naus, M. J. (2010). A longitudinal investigation of coping and posttraumatic growth in breast cancer survivors. Journal of Psychosocial Oncology, 28(1), 61-78. doi.org/10.1080/07347330903438958
• Butler, L. D., Blasey, C. M., Garlan, R. W., McCaslin, S. E., Azarow, J., Chen, X. H., ... & Spiegel, D. (2005). Posttraumatic growth following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001: Cognitive, coping, and trauma symptom predictors in an internet convenience sample. Traumatology, 11(4), 247-267.
• Calhoun, L. G., & Tedeschi, R. G. (1999). Facilitating posttraumatic growth: A clinician's guide. New Jersey: Routledge.
• Calhoun, L.G., Cann, A. & Tedeschi, R.G. (2010). The post-traumatic growth model: Sociocultural considerations. In T. Weiss & R. Berger (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth and culturally competent practice: Lessons learned from around the globe (pp. 1-14). Hoboken, NJ, US: John Wiley & Sons Inc
• Carver, C. S. (1998). Resilience and thriving: Issues, models, and linkages. Journal of social issues, 54(2), 245-266.
• Carver, C. S., & Scheier, M. F. (1994). Situational coping and coping dispositions in a stressful transaction. Journal of personality and social psychology, 66(1), 184.
• Carver, C.S., Antoni, M, H. (2004). Finding benefit in breast cancer during the year after diagnosis predicts better adjustment 5 to 8 years after diagnosis. Health psychology, 23(6), 595.
• Chauvin, B., Hermand, D., & Mullet, E. (2007). Risk Perception and Personality Facets. Risk Analysis. 1, 171-185.
• Cole, A. S., & Lynn, S. J. (2010). Adjustment of sexual assault survivors: Hardiness and acceptance coping in posttraumatic growth. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 30(1), 111–127. https://doi. org/ 10. 2190/ IC. 30.1.g
• Confino, D., Einav, M., & Margalit, M. (2023). Post-traumatic Growth: The Roles of the Sense of Entitlement, Gratitude and hope. International Journal of Applied Positive Psychology, 8(2), 453-465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41042-023-00102-9
• Costa, P. T., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Normal personaltiy assessment in clinical practice: The neo personality inventory. Psychological Assessment, 4, 5-13.
• Cryder, C., Kilmer, R., Tedeschi, R., & Calhoun, L.(2006). An exploratory study of posttraumatic growth in children following a natural disaster. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 76, 65–69.
• Currier, J. M., Lisman, R., Irene Harris, J., Tait, R., & Erbes, C. R. (2013). Cognitive processing of trauma and attitudes toward disclosure in the first six months after military deployment. Journal of clinical psychology, 69(3), 209-221.
• Çetinceli, K., & Mücevher, M. H. (2023). Kadın Çalışanlarda İş Stresinin ve İşe Yabancılaşmanın Umut ve İyimserlik ile Olan İlişkisi. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Uygulamalı Bilimler Dergisi, 7(1), 24-43.
• Çiçek, İ., & Aslan, A. E. (2020). Kişilik ve beş faktör kişilik özellikleri: Kuramsal bir çerçeve. Batman Üniversitesi Yaşam Bilimleri Dergisi, 10(1), 137-147.
• Dekel, S., Ein-Dor, T., & Solomon, Z. (2012). Posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic distress: A longitudinal study. Psychological Trauma: Theory. Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(1), 94.
• DeYoung, C. G. (2006). Higher-order factors of the big five in a multi-informant sample. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(6), 1138–51.
• Duman, N. (2019). Travma Sonrası Büyüme ve Gelişim. Uluslararası Afro-Avrasya Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4(7), 178-184.
• Dürü, Ç. (2006). Travma sonrası stres belirtileri ve travma sonrası büyümenin çeşitli değişkenler açısından incelenmesi ve bir model önerisi (Yayımlanmamış doktora tezi). Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Ankara.
• Eriksson M, Lindstrcom B. (2005). Validity of Antonovsky’s sense of coherence scale: a sys-tematic review. J Epidemiol Community Health, 59(6), 460–466. doi:10.1136/jech.2003.01808523.
• Erten, R., & Kocakaya, R. (2020). Travma Sonrası Büyüme ve Anlam: Bir Vaka Örneği. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (31), 189- 204.
• Ezerbolat, M., & Özpolat, A. G. Y. (2016). Travma sonrası büyüme: travmaya iyi yanından bakmak. Kriz Dergisi, 24(1).
• Folkman, S., & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of personality and social psychology, 48(1), 150.
• Frazier, P., Conlon, A., & Glaser, T. (2001). Positive and negative life changes follow-ing sexual assault. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 1048–1055. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.69.6.1048
• Goldberg, L. R. (1993). The Structure of Phenotypic Personality Traists. American Psychologist, 48(1), 26-34.
• Gülyol, Y. (2024). Deprem Kaynaklı İkincil Travmatik Strese Genel Bir Bakış. Habitus Toplumbilim Dergisi, 5(5), 37-60.
• Habip, B. (2019). Psikanalizin içinden. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları.
• Harju, B. L. and Bolen, L. M. (1998), “The Effects of Optimism on Coping and Perceived Quality of Life of College Students”. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 13(2), 185-200.
• Helgeson, V.S., Reynolds, K.A., Tomich, P.L. (2006). A meta-analytic review of benefit finding and growth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(5), 797.
• Herman, J.L. (2020). Travma ve İyileşme (8.Basım). İstanbul. Literatür Yayıncılık.
• Hobfoll, S. E., Hall, B. J., Canetti‐Nisim, D., Galea, S., Johnson, R. J., & Palmieri, P. A. (2007). Refining our understanding of traumatic growth in the face of terrorism: Moving from meaning cognitions to doing what is meaningful. Applied Psychology, 56(3), 345-366. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.995981
• Janoff-Bulman, R. (1982). Esteem and control bases of blame: "Adaptive" strategies for victims versus observers. Journal of Personality, 50(2), 180–192. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1982.tb01022.x
• Janoff-Bulman, R. (2006). Schema-Change perspectives on posttraumatic growth. In L. G. Calhoun & R. G. Tedeschi (Eds.), Handbook of posttraumatic growth: Research and practice (pp. 81-99). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
• John, O. P., Naumann, L. P., & Soto, C. J. (2008). Paradigm shift to the integrative Big Five trait taxonomy: History, measurement, and conceptual issues. In O. P. John, R. W. Robins, & L. A. Pervin (Eds.), Handbook of personality: Theory and research (3rd ed., pp. 114–158). The Guilford Press.
• Joseph, S., Linley, P.A. (2005). Positive adjustment to threatening events: An organismic valuing theory of growth through adversity. Review of General Psychology, 9(3), 262.
• Joseph, S., Murphy, D. & Regel, S. (2012). An affective- cognitive processing model of post traumatic growth. Clinical Psychology & Psychotheyapy, 19, 316-325.
• Karancı, A. N., Işıklı, S., Aker, A. T., Gül, E. İ., Erkan, B. B., Özkol, H., & Güzel, H. Y. (2012). Personality, posttraumatic stress and trauma type: Factors contributing to posttraumatic growth and its domains in a Turkish community sample. European journal of psychotraumatology, 3(1), 17303.
• Karancı, N. A., Aker, T. A., & Işıklı, S. (2009). Yetişkinlerde travmatik olay yaşama yaygınlığı, travma sonrası stres bozukluğu ve travma sonrası gelişimin değerlendirilmesi. TUBİTAK SOBAG Projesi (107K323).
• Kashdan, T. B., Morina, N., & Priebe, S. (2009). Post-traumatic stress disorder, social anxiety disorder, and depression in survivors of Kosova War: Experimental avoidance as a contributor to distress and quality of life. Journal of Anxiety Disorder, 23, 185-196.
• Kleim, B., & Ehlers, A. (2009). Evidence for a curvilinear relationship between posttraumatic growth and posttrauma depression and PTSD in assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 22(1), 45-52.
• Kleim, B., & Ehlers, A. (2009). Evidence for a curvilinear relationship between post-traumatic growth and posttrauma depression and PTSD in assault survivors. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 22(1), 45–52.
• Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: an inquiry into hardiness. Journal of personality and social psychology, 37(1), 1.
• Kobasa, S. C., Maddi, S. R., & Puccetti, M. C. (1982). Personality and exercise as buffers in the stress-illness relationship. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 5, 391-404.
• Lechner, S., Carver, C., Antoni, M., Weaver, K., & Phillips, K. (2006). Curvilinear asso-ciations between benefit finding and psychosocial adjustment to breast cancer. Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology, 74, 828–840.
• Lepore, S. J., & Revenson, T. A. (2006). Resilience and Posttraumatic Growth: Recovery, Resistance, and Reconfiguration. In L. G. Calhoun & R. G. Tedeschi (Eds.), Handbook of posttraumatic growth: Research & practice (pp. 24–46). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
• Levers, L. L. (Ed.). (2012). Trauma counseling: Theories and interventions. New York, NY: Springer.
• Levine, P. A. (2017). Travma ve anı. (çev. P. Savaş). İstanbul: Butik Yayıncılık.
• Levine, S. Z., Laufer, A., Stein, E., Hamama‐Raz, Y., & Solomon, Z. (2009). Examining the relationship between resilience and posttraumatic growth. Journal of traumatic stress: Official publication of the international society for traumatic stress studies, 22(4), 282-286.
• Levy, A. J. & Wall, J. C. (2000). Children who have witnessed community homi-cide: Incorporating risk and resilience in clinical work. Families in Society. The Journal of Contemporary Human Services, 81, 402–411.
• Lindblad C, Sandelin K, Petersson LM, Rohani C, Langius-Ekl€of EA. (2016). Stability of the13-item sense of coherence (SOC) scale: a longitudinal prospective study in womentreated for breast cancer. Qual Life Res, 25(3), 753–760. doi:10.1007/s11136-015-1114-424.
• Linley PA, Joseph S, Loumidis K. (2005). Trauma work, sense of coherence, and positive and negative changes in therapists. Psychother Psychosom, 74,185–8. https://doi.org/10.1159/000084004.
• Linley, P. A. & Joseph, S. (2004). Positive change following trauma and adversity: A review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 11-21.
• Maddi, S. R. (2002). The story of hardiness: Twenty years of theorizing, research, and practice. Consulting psychology journal: practice and research, 54(3), 173.
• Maddi, S. R. (2005). On Hardiness and Other Pathways to Resilience. American Psychologist, 60(3), 261–262. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.3.261
• Maddi, S. R. (2006). Hardiness: The courage to grow from stresses. The journal of positive psychology, 1(3), 160-168.
• Maercker, A., & Zoellner, T. (2004). The Janus face of self-perceived growth: Toward a two-component model of posttraumatic growth. Psychological inquiry, 15(1), 41-48.
• Maguen, S., Vogt, D. S., King, L. A., King, D. W., & Litz, B. T. (2006). Posttraumatic growth among Gulf War I veterans: The predictive role of deployment-related experiences and background characteristics. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 11, 373-388.
• McLean, C. P., Handa, S., Dickstein, B. D., Benson, T. A., Baker, M. T., Isler, W. C., ... & Litz, B. T. (2013). Posttraumatic growth and posttraumatic stress among military medical personnel. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(1), 62.
• Min JA, Lee CU, Hwang SI, Shin JI, Lee BS, Han SH, Ju H, Lee CY, Chae JH. (2014). The moderation of resilience on the negative effect of pain on depression and post-traumatic growth in individuals with spinal cord injury. Disability and rehabilitation, 36(14), 1196-1202.
• Norman M (1989) These Good Men: Friendships Forged From War, New York, 139- 141.
• O’Leary, V. E., Alday, C. S., & Ickovics, J. R. (1998). Models of life change and posttraumatic growth. In R. G.Tedeschi, C. L., Park., & L. G., Calhoun (Eds.), Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis (pp. 127-147). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• O'Leary & Ickovics JR. (1995). Resilience and thriving in response to challenge: an opportunity for a paradigm shift in women's health. Womens Health, 1(2), 121-42. PMID: 9373376.
• Özcan, N. A., & Arslan, R. (2020). Travma Sonrası Stres ile Travma Sonrası Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkide Sosyal Desteğin ve Maneviyatın Aracı Rolü. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 19(73), 299-314.
• Özgüler, N. E., Maner, F., Çobanoğlu, S., Aker, A. T., & Karamustafalıoğlu, O. (2004). Yaşlılarda travma sonrası stress bozukluğunda eş tanı. Düşünen Adam dergisi, 17(3), 141-145.
• Park, C. L. (2004). The notion of stress-related growth: Problems and prospects.Psychological Inquiry, 15, 69–76.
• Park, C. L., & Ai, A. L. (2006). Meaning making and growth: New directions for research on survivors of trauma. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 11(5), 389- 407.
• Park, C. L., Lechner, S. C., Antoni, M. H., & Stanton, A. L. (2009). Medical İllness And Positive Life Change: Can Crisis Lead To Personal Transformation?, American Psychological Association.
• Polatinsky, S., ve Esprey, Y. (2000). An assessment of gender differences in the perception of benefit resulting from the loss of a child. Journal of Traumatic Stress: Official Publication of The International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, 13(4), 709- 718. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007870419116
• Powell, S., Rosner, R., Butollo, W., Tedeschi, R. G. ve Calhoun, L. G. (2003). Posttraumatic growth after war: A study with former refugees and displaced people in Sarajevo. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 59(1), 71-83. doi: 10.1002/jclp.10117
• Ptacek, J. T., Smith, R. E., & Zanas, J. (1992). Gender, appraisal, and coping: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of personality, 60(4), 747-770.
• Ragger, K., Hiebler-Ragger, M., Herzog, G., Kapfhammer, H. P., & Unterrainer, H. F. (2019). Sense of coherence is linked to post-traumatic growth after critical incidents in Austrian ambulance personnel. BMC psychiatry, 19, 1-11.
• Rubenzer, S. J., & Faschingbauer, T. R. (2004). Personality, character & leadership in the White house: Psychologists assess the presidents. Washington: Brassey’s Inc.
• Ruppert, F. (2014) Travma, bağlanma ve aile konstelasyonları (çev. F. Zengin). İstanbul: Kaknüs. (Orijinal çalışmanın basım tarihi 2008).
• Rutter, M. (1985). Resilience in the face of adversity: Protective factors and resist-ance to psychiatric disorder. British Journal of Psychiatry, 147, 598–611.
• Salim, J., Wadey, R., & Diss, C. (2015). Examining the relationship between hardiness and perceived stress-related growth in a sport injury context. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 19, 10–17. https:// doi. org/ 10. 1016/j. psych sport. 2014. 12. 004
• Savcı, M., & Aysan, F. (2014). Üniversite Öğrencilerinde Algılanan Stres Düzeyi İle Stresle Başa Çıkma Stratejileri Arasındaki İlişki. Uluslararası Türk Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, (3), 44-56.
• Schaefer, J. A. & Moss, R. H. (1998). The context for posttraumatic growth: Life crises, individual and social resources, and coping. Ed. R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park, L.G. Calhoun. Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis. Mahvah. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Schaefer, J. A., & Moos, R. H. (1992). Life crises and personal growth. In B. N. Carpenter (Eds.), Personal coping: Theory, research, and application (pp. 149–170). Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
• Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1987). Dispositional optimism and physical well-being: The influence of generalized outcome expectancies on health. Journal of Personality, 55(2), 169-210
• Schmidt, S. D., Blank, T. O., Bellizzi, K. M. & Park, C. L. (2012). The relationship of coping strategies, social support, and attachment style with posttraumatic growth in cancer survivors. Journal of Health Psychology, 17(7), 1033-1040. doi.org/10.1177/1359105311429203
• Schroevers, M. J., Helgeson, V. S., Sanderman, R. & Ranchor, A. V. (2010). Type of social support matters for prediction of posttraumatic growth among cancer survivors. Psycho‐Oncology, 19(1), 46-53. doi:10.1002/pon.1501
• Schulenberg, S. E. (Ed.). (2020). Positive psychological approaches to disaster: Meaning, resilience, and posttraumatic growth. Springer Nature Switzerland AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32007-2
• Schultz, J. M., Espinola, M., Rechkemmer, A., Cohen, M. A., & Espinel, Z. (2016). Prevention of Disaster Impact and Outcome Cascades, In: Israelashvili M, Romano JL (eds.): Cambridge Handbook of International Prevention Science. 492-519.
• Schulz, U., Mohamed, N.E. (2004). Turning the tide: Benefit finding after cancer surgery. Social Science & Medicine, 59(3), 653-662.
• Seligman, E.P. (2007). Gerçek mutluluk. (çev. S. Kunt-AkbaĢ). Ankara: HYB
• Shakespeare-Finch, J. E., Smith, S. G., Gow, K. M., Embelton, G., & Baird, L. (2003). The prevalence of post-traumatic growth in emergency ambulance personnel. Traumatology, 9(1), 58- 71. https://doi.org/10.1177/153476560300900104
• Shakespeare-Finch, J., & Lurie-Beck, J. (2014). A meta-analytic clarification of the relationship between posttraumatic growth and symptoms of posttraumatic distress disorder. Journal of anxiety disorders, 28(2), 223-229.
• Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., Borders, T. F., Babyak, M. A., & Higgins, R. L. (1996). Development and validation of the state hope scale. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70(2), 321- 335.
• Solomon, Z., & Dekel, R. (2007). Posttraumatic stress disorder and posttraumaticgrowth among Israeli ex-POWs. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 20, 303–312.
• Somer, O., Korkmaz, M., & Tatar, A. (2002). Beş faktör kişilik envanteri’nin geliştirilmesi-1: Ölçek ve alt ölçeklerin oluşturulması. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 17(49), 21–33.
• Song, H., & Lee, Y. S. (2011). The effects of hardiness and emotional intelligence on posttraumatic growth: Active coping as a mediating variable. Korean journal of counseling, 12(4), 1231-1246. doi. org/ 10. 15703/ kjc. 12.4. 201108. 1231.
• Stockton, H., Hunt, N. ve Joseph, S. (2011). Cognitive processing, rumination and posttraumatic Growth. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 24(1), 85-92
• Sungur, M. Z. (1999). İkincil travma ve sosyal destek. Klinik Psikiyatri, 2(2), 105-108.
• Synder, R., Irwing, L., & Anderson, R. (1991). Hope and health: Measuring the will and the ways. C. R. Synder & D. R. Forsyth (Ed.). Handbook of social and clinical psychology (ss. 355-361). New York: Pergamon.
• Tarhan, S., & Bacanlı, H. (2015). Sürekli Umut Ölçeği’nin Türkçe’ye uyarlanması: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 3(1), 1-14.
• Taylor, S. E. (1983). Adjustment to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation. American Psychologist, 38, 1161–1173.
• Taylor, S. E., & Armor, D. A. (1996). Positive illusions and coping with adversity. Journal of Personality, 64, 873–898.
• Taylor, S. E., Kemeny, M. E., Reed, G. M., Bower, J. E., & Gruenewald, T. L. (2000). Psychological resources, positive illusions, and health. American Psychologist, 55, 99–109.
• Tedeschi, R. G. & Calhoun, L. G. (2004). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual foundations and empirical evidence. Psychological Inquiry, 15, 1-18.
• Tedeschi, R. G., & Moore, B. A. (2016). The posttraumatic growth workbook: Coming through trauma wiser, stronger, and more resilient. New Harbinger Publications.
• Tedeschi, R. G., Calhoun, L. G., & Cann, A. (2007). Evaluating resource gain: Understanding and misunderstanding posttraumatic growth. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 56(3), 396–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2007.00299.x
• Tedeschi, R. G., Park, C. L., & Calhoun, L. G. (1998). Posttraumatic growth: Conceptual issues. Ed. R. G. Tedeschi, C. L. Park & L. G. Calhoun. Posttraumatic growth: Positive changes in the aftermath of crisis. Mahwah. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Tedeschi, R. G., Shakespeare-Finch, J., Taku, K., & Calhoun, L. G. (2018). Posttraumatic growth: Theory, research, and applications. Routledge.
• Tedeschi, R.G., Calhoun, L.G. (1996). The Posttraumatic Growth Inventory: Measuring the positive legacy of trauma. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 9(3), 455-471.
• Thornton, A. A., & Perez, M. A. (2006). Posttraumatic growth in prostate cancer survivors and their partners. Psycho‐Oncology: Journal of the Psychological, Social and Behavioral Dimensions of Cancer, 15(4), 285-296.
• Ullman, S.E., & Peter‐Hagene, L. (2014). Social reactions to sexual assault disclosure, coping, perceived control, and PTSD symptoms in sexual assault victims. Journal of Community Psychology, 42(4), 495-508.
• Veith, I. (1977) 'Four thousand years of hysteria' in Mardi J. Horowitz (ed.), Hysterical Personality (New York: Jason Aronson), 7-93.
• Wagnild, G. M., & Collins, J. A. (2009). Assessing resilience. Journal of psychosocial nursing and mental health services, 47(12), 28-33.
• Werdel B., M., & Wicks, J. W. (2012). Primer on posttraumatic growth. New Jersey: John Wiley.
• Westphal M, Bonanno GA. (2007) Posttraumatic growth and resilience to trauma: Different sides of the same coin or different coins? Applied Psychology, 56(3), 417-427.
• Westphal, M., & Bonanno, G. A. (2007). Posttraumatic growth and resilience to trauma: Different sides of the same coin or different coins?. Applied Psychology, 56(3), 417-427.
• Widows, M. R., Jacobsen, P. B., Booth-Jones, M., & Fields, K. K. (2005). Predictors of posttraumatic growth following bone marrow transplantation for cancer. Health psychology, 24(3), 266.
• Wilson, J. (1994). The Historical Evolution of PTSD Diagnostic Criteria: From Freud to DSM-IV, Journal of Traumatic Stress, 7(4), 681- 698
• Wright, M. O. & Masten, A. S. (2015). Pathways to resilience in context. In L.C. Theron, L. Liebenberg and M. Ungar (Eds.), Youth Resilience and Culture: Commonalities and Complexities (pp. 3-23). New York: Springer. Wu, G., Feder, A., Cohen, H., Kim, J. J., Calderon, S., Charney, D. S., & Mathé, A. A. (2013). Understanding resilience. Frontiers in behavioral neuroscience, 7, 10.
• Yi, J., & Kim, M. A. (2014). Postcancer experiences of childhood cancer survivors: how is posttraumatic stress related to posttraumatic growth?. Journal of traumatic stress, 27(4), 461-467.
• Zoellner, T., & Maercker, A. (2006). Posttraumatic growth in clinical psychology—A critical review and introduction of a two component model. Clinical psychology review, 26(5), 626-653.