Classification, Formulations, Toxicology and Mechanisms of Action of Pesticides

Bu makale için 1 Temmuz 2026 tarihinde bir düzeltme yayımlandı. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/artvinofd/article/1980969

Öz

In plant production, significant quality and yield losses occur due to abiotic factors (meteorological factors, soil factors, toxic gases, and improper agricultural practices) and biotic factors (disease agents, pests, and weeds). To increase yield per unit area and/or partially prevent quality losses in plant production, there is intensive use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Pesticides are chemical compounds used to prevent or control damage caused by insects, mites, nematodes, rodents, fungi, weeds, and other unwanted organisms. In their chemical compositions, many substances are used in agriculture in various formulations, either alone or in mixtures with fillers. In particular, the negative effects of pesticides on beneficial species in nature have led to the disruption of the natural balance, the extinction of beneficial species, the development of resistance to diseases and pests over time, and the risk of residues in food, which have now reached intolerable levels. Although the diversity and intensity of disease, pest, and weed populations in intensively farmed areas necessitate the use of pesticides, it is imperative that our producers be properly informed about pesticides in order to minimize the aforementioned negative effects. The implementation of regulations, along with appropriate education and training, will help reduce the negative effects of pesticide use and promote safer and more sustainable agricultural practices.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Environment
• Food Safety
• Pesticides
• Human health
• Toxicology
• Diseases

Pestisitlerin Sınıflandırılması, Formülasyonları, Toksikolojisi ve Etki Mekanizmaları

Bu makale için 1 Temmuz 2026 tarihinde bir düzeltme yayımlandı. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/artvinofd/article/1980969

Öz

Bitkisel üretimde; cansız faktörler (meteorolojik faktörler, toprak faktörleri, zehirli gazlar ve hatalı tarımsal işlemler) ve canlı faktörlerin (hastalık etmenleri, zararlılar ve yabancı otlar) neden olduğu önemli kalite ve verim kayıpları olmaktadır. Bitkisel üretimde birim alandan elde edilen verimin artırılabilmesi ve/veya kalite kayıplarının kısmen de olsa önüne geçilebilmesi için yoğun bir kimyasal gübre ve pestisit kullanımı söz konusudur. Pestisitler; böcekler, akarlar, nematotlar, kemirgenler, funguslar, yabancı otlar ve diğer birçok istenmeyen organizmaların zararlarını önlemek veya kontrol etmek için kullanılan kimyasal bileşenlerdir. Kimyasal bileşimlerinde pek çok madde tek ve karışım halinde dolgu maddeleriyle birlikte farklı formülasyonlarda tarımda kullanılmaktadır. Özellikle pestisitlerin tabiattaki yararlı canlı türleri üzerindeki olumsuz etkileri neticesinde doğal dengenin bozulması, faydalı canlı türlerinin yok olmakla karşı karşıya kalması, hastalık ve zararlı etmenlerde zamanla gelişen dayanıklılık sorunları ve gıdalardaki kalıntı riskleri açısından oluşturduğu zararlar günümüzde artık tolere edilemeyecek boyutlara ulaşmıştır. Özellikle yoğun tarım yapılan alanlarda hastalık, zararlı ve yabancı ot popülasyonlarındaki çeşitlilik ve yoğunluk pestisit kullanımını zorunlu kılsa da yukarıda bahsedilen olumsuz etkilerin minimize edilebilmesi için üreticilerimizin pestisitler hakkında doğru bilgilendirilmesi bir zorunluluktur. Yönetmeliklerin uygulanması, uygun eğitim ve öğretim, pestisit kullanımının olumsuz etkilerini azaltmaya ve daha güvenli ve daha sürdürülebilir tarım uygulamalarını teşvik etmeye yardımcı olacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Çevre
• Gıda Güvenliği
• Pestisitler
• Hastalıklar
• İnsan sağlığı
• Toksikoloji

Kaynakça

1. Ahmad, M.F., Ahmad, F.A., Alsayegh, A.A., Zeyaullah, M., AlShahrani, A.M., Muzammil, K., Saati, A.A., Wahab, S., Elbendary, E.Y., Kambal, N., Abdelrahman, M.H., & Hussain, S. (2024). Pesticides impacts on human health and the environment with their mechanisms of action and possible countermeasures. Heliyon, 10(7), e29128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e29128
2. Aponte, C., Maranon, T., & García, L.V. (2010). Microbial C, N and P in soils of Mediterranean oak forests: influence of season, canopy cover and soil depth. Biogeochemistry, 101 (1), 77-92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533.10.9418.5
3. Beffa, R., Menne, H., & Kocher, H. (2019). Herbicide resistance action committee (HRAC): herbicide classification, resistance evolution, survey, and resistance mitigation activities. Modern Crop Protection Compounds, 3, 5-32. https://doi.org/10.1002/9783527699261.ch1
4. Boedeker, W., Watts, M., Clausing, P., & Marquez, E. (2020). The global distribution of acute unintentional pesticide poisoning: estimations based on a systematic review. BMC Publ. Health, 20(1), 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09939-0
5. Cech, R., Zaller, J.G., Lyssimachou, A., Clausing, P., Hertoge, K., & Linhart, C. (2023). Pesticide drift mitigation measures appear to reduce contamination of nonagricultural areas, but hazards to humans and the environment remain. Sci. Total Environ., 854, 158814. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158814
6. Chagnon, M., Kreutzweiser, D., Mitchell, E.A., Morrissey, C.A., Noome, D.A., & Van der Sluijs, J.P. (2015). Risks of large-scale use of systemic insecticides to ecosystem functioning and services. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res., 22, 119-134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-014-3277-x
7. Dar, M.A., & Kaushik, G. (2022). Classification of pesticides and loss of crops due to creepy crawlers. Pesticides in the Natural Environment, 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-90489-6.00001-X
8. Ducom, P.J.F. (2016). The return of the fumigants. In Proceedings of the Ninth International Working Conference on Stored Product Protection, Campinas, Brazil, 15–18 October 2006, pp. 510–516.

9. Elbert, A., Nauen, R., & Salmon, E. (2008). Resistance management guidelines for the new ketoenol insecticide Movento. Bayer CropScience Journal, 61(2), 403-416.
10. Elmorsy, E., Al-Ghafari, A., Al Doghaither, H., Salama, M., & Carter, W.G. (2022). An investigation of the neurotoxic effects of malathion, chlorpyrifos, and paraquat to different brain regions. Brain Sci., 12(8), 975. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci12080975
11. Fahimi-Kashani, N., & Hormozi-Nezhad, M.R. (2016). Gold-nanoparticle-based colorimetric sensor array for discrimination of organophosphate pesticides. Anal. Chem., 88(16), 8099-8106. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.analchem.6b01616
12. Fang, L., Liao, X., Jia, B., Shi, L., Kang, L., Zhou, L., & Kong, W. (2020). Recent progress in immunosensors for pesticides. Bioelectron, 164, 12255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bios.2020.112255
13. Foucault, A., Vallet, N., Ravalet, N., Picou, F., Bene, M.C., & Gyan Herault, O. (2021). Occupational pesticide exposure increases risk of acute myeloid leukemia: a metaanalysis of case–control studies including 3.955 cases and 9.948 controls. Sci. Rep., 11(1), 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-81604-x
14. Frisoni, G.B., Altomare, D., Thal Ribaldi, D.R.F., Van Der Kant, R., Ossenkoppele, R., Blennow, K., Cummings, J., Van Duijn, C., & Nilsson, P.M. (2022). The probabilistic model of Alzheimer disease: the amyloid hypothesis revised. Nat. Rev. Neurosci., 23(1), 53-66. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41583-021-00533-w
15. Gradiski, D., Vinot, J., Zissu, D., Limasset, J., & Lafontaine, M. (1983) The carcinogenic effect of a series of petroleum-derived oils on the skin of mice. Environ. Res., 32(3), 258-68. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/0013-9351(83)90110-x
16. Guenther, K., Heinke, V., Thiele, B., Kleist, E., Prast, H., & Raecker, T. (2003). Response to comments on “Endocrine disrupting nonylphenols are ubiquitous in food”. Environ. Sci. Technol., 37(11), 2624-2624. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0300057
17. Gupta, R.C. (2007). Avitrol. Chapter 50. Basic and Clinical Principles, Veterinary Toxicology, 561-563. Hernandez-Mariano, J.A., Baltazar-Reyes, M.C., Salazar-Martínez. E., & Cupul-Uicab, L.A. (2022). Exposure to the pesticide DDT and risk of diabetes and hypertension: systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Int. J. Hyg Environ. Health, 239, 113865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2021.113865
18. Jayaraj, R., Megha, P., & Sreedev, P. (2016). Organochlorine pesticides, their toxic effects on living organisms and their fate in the environment. Interdiscipl. Toxicol., 9(3-4), 90-100. https://doi.org/10.1515/intox-2016-0012
19. Kaur, R., Mavi, G.K., Raghav, S., & Khan, gI. (2019). Pesticides classification and its impact on environment. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. Appl. Sci., 8(3), 1889-1897. https://doi.org/ 10.20546/IJCMAS.2019.803.224
20. Khan, B.A., Nadeem, M.A., Nawaz, H., Amin, M.M., Abbasi, G.H., Nadeem, M., Ali, M., Ameen, M., Javaid, M.M., & Maqbool, R. (2023). Pesticides: Impacts on Agriculture Productivity, Environment, and Management Strategies. In: Aftab, T. (eds) Emerging Contaminants and Plants. Emerging Contaminants and Associated Treatment Technologies. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22269-6_5
21. Klatyik, S., Simon, G., Olah, M., Mesnage, R., Antoniou, M.N., Zaller, J.G., & Szekacs, A. (2023). Terrestrial ecotoxicity of glyphosate, its formulations, and co-formulants: evidence from 2010–2023. Environ. Sci. Eur., 35(1), 1-29. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12302-023-00758-9
22. Kwak, K., Paek, D., & Park, J.T. (2020). Occupational exposure to formaldehyde and risk of lung cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Ind. Med., 63(4), 312-327. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/ajim.23093
23. Leal, J.S., Garcia, M., Ribosa, I., & Comelles, F. (2020). Environmental risk assessment of ethoxylated non-ionic surfactants. Surfactants in Solution, CRC Press, pp. 379-391.
24. Leoci, R., & Ruberti, M. (2021). Pesticides: an overview of the current health problems of their use. J. Geosci. Environ. Protect, 9 (8), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2021.98001
25. Lotti, M., & Moretto, A. (2005). PNS effects and delayed polyneuropathy. In R.C. Gupta (Ed.), Toxicology of organophosphate and carbamate compounds (pp. 361–370). San Diego: Elsevier.
26. Luo, B., & Ning, Y. (2022). Comprehensive overview of carboxamide derivatives as succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors. J. Agric. Food Chem., 70 (4), 957-975. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.1c06654
27. Mesnage R, Benbrook C, Antoniou MN (2019). Insight into the confusion over surfactant co-formulants in glyphosate-based herbicides. Food Chem. Toxicol., 128: 137-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2019.03.053
28. Mirzayev, F. (2024). Chemical classification of pesticides. Norwegian Journal of Development of the International Science, 130. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10974874
29. Oguh, C.E., Okpaka, C.O., Ubani, C.S., Okekeaji, U., Joseph, P.S., & Amadi, E.U. (2019). Natural pesticides (biopesticides) and uses in pest management- a critical review. Asian Journal of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering, 2(3), 126-143.
30. Oruc, H.H. (2010). In: O. Carisse (Ed.), fungicides and their effects on animals. Tech Publishers, Fungicides, pp. 349-362.
31. Perrin, L., Spinosi, J., Chaperon, L., Kab, S., Moisan, F., & Ebaz, A. (2021). Pesticides expenditures by farming type and incidence of Parkinson disease in farmers: a French nationwide study. Environ. Res., 197, 111161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2021.111161
32. Pretty, J., & Hine, R. (2002). Sustainable agriculture, reducing food poverty with sustainable agriculture: a summary of new evidence. Essex: CES Report, University of Essex, UK, 2002.
33. Rafeeinia, A., Asadikaram, G., Moazed, V., & Darabi, M.K. (2023). Organochlorine pesticides may induce leukemia by methylation of CDKN2B and MGMT promoters and histone modifications. Gene, 851, 146976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gene.2022.146976
34. Rani, L., Thapa, K., Kanojia, N., Sharma, N., Singh, S., Grewal, A.S., Srivastav, A.L., & Kaushal, J. (2021). An extensive review on the consequences of chemical pesticides on human health and environment. J. Clean. Prod., 283, 124657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124657
35. Reddy, G.V.P., & Guerrero, E. (2010). New pheromones and insect control strategies. Vitamins & Hormones, 83, 493-519. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0083-6729(10)83020-1
36. Ruder, F., & Kayser, H. (1994). The thiourea insecticide diafenthiuron inhibits mitochondrial ATPase in vitro and in vivo by its carbodiimide product. Biochem. Soc. Trans., 22 (1), 241-244. https://doi.org/10.1042/bst0220241
37. Satpathy, S., Gotyal, B., & Babu, V.R. (2020). Role of novel insecticides in crop protection and their selectivity to natural enemies: a review. J. Environ. Biol., 41(2), 149-160. https://doi.org/10.22438/jeb/41/2/MRN-1275
38. Sepahi, S., Gerayli, S., Delirrad, M., Taghavizadeh Yazdi, M.E., Zare-Zardini, H., Bushehri, B., & Ghorani-Azam, A. (2023). Biochemical responses as early and reliable biomarkers of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides intoxication: a systematic literature review. J. Biochem. Mol. Toxicol., 37(3), e23285. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbt.23285
39. Shekhar, C., Khosya, R., Thakur, K., Mahajan, D., Kumar, R., Kumar, S., & Sharma, A.K. (2024). A systematic review of pesticide exposure, associated risks, and long-term human health impacts. Toxicology Reports, 13, 101840. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2024.101840
40. Singh, Z., Kaur, J., Kaur, R., & Hundal, S.S. (2016). Toxic effects of organochlorine pesticides: a review. American Journal of BioScience, 4(3-1), 11-18.
41. Singh, N.S., Sharma, R., Parween, T., & Patanjali, P. (2018). Pesticide contamination and human health risk factor. Modern Age Environmental Problems and their Remediation, Springer, pp. 49-68.
42. Songa, E.A., & Okonkwo, J.O. (2016). Recent approaches to improving selectivity and sensitivity of enzyme-based biosensors for organophosphorus pesticides: A review. Talanta, 155, 289-304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.talanta.2016.04.046
43. Sui, G., Zhang, W., Zhou, K., Li, Y., Zhang, B., Xu, D., Zou, Y., & Zhou, W. (2017). Trialkylamine derivatives containing a triazole moiety as promising ergosterol biosynthesis inhibitor: design, synthesis, and antifungal activity. Chem. Pharm. Bull., 65 (1), 82–89. https://doi.org/10.1248/cpb.c16-00732
44. Thrall, P.H., Oakeshott, J.G., Fitt, G., Southerton, S., Burdon Sheppard, J.J., Russell, A., Zalucki, R.J., Heino, M.M., & Ford Denison, R. (2011). Evolution in agriculture: the application of evolutionary approaches to the management of biotic interactions in agro-ecosystems. Evolutionary Applications, 4(2), 200-215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-4571.2010.00179.x
45. Trellu, C., Vargas, H.O., Mousset, E., Oturan, N., & Oturan, M.A. (2021). Electrochemical technologies for the treatment of pesticides. Curr. Opin. Electrochem., 26, 100677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coelec.2020.100677
46. Tudi, M., Daniel Ruan, H., Wang, L., Lyu, J., Sadler, R., Connell, D., Chu, C., & Phung, D.T. (2021). Agriculture development, pesticide application and its impact on the environment. Int. J. Environ. Res. Publ. Health, 18(3), 1112. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18031112
47. Wang, C., Yao, X., Li, X., Wang, Q., Jiang, N., Hu, X., Lv Mu, H.B., & Wang, J. (2024). Fosthiazate, a soil-applied nematicide, induces oxidative stress, neurotoxicity and transcriptome aberrations in earthworm (Eisenia fetida). J. Hazard Mater., 463, 132865. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132865
48. Wipff, J.K. (2002). Gene flow in turf and forage grasses (Poaceae). In Proceedings of Scientific Methods Workshop: Ecological and Agronomic Consequences of Gene Flow from Transgenic Crops to Wild Relatives, Ohio State University, pp. 143-161.
49. Wongta, A., Sawang, N., Tongjai, P., Jatiket, M., & Hongsibsong, S. (2022). The assessment of organophosphate pesticide exposure among school children in four regions of Thailand: analysis of dialkyl phosphate metabolites in students’ urine and organophosphate pesticide residues in vegetables for school lunch. Toxics, 10(8), 434. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10080434
50. Wu, M.R., Hsiao, C.Y., Cheng, C.H., Liao, F.C., Chao, C.L., Chen, C.Y., Yeh, H.I., & Su, M.I. (2018). Is endotracheal intubation a non-beneficial treatment in patients with respiratory failure due to paraquat poisoning? PLoS One, 13(3), e0195071. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195071
51. Van Melis, L., Bak, T., Peerdeman, A.M., van Kleef, R.G.D.M., Wopken, J.P., & Westerink, R.H.S. (2025). Acute, prolonged, and chronic exposure to organochlorine insecticides evoke differential effects on in vitro neuronal activity and network development. NeuroToxicology, 111,103308, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2025.103308
52. Verdadero, F.X.D., Agarap, A.Z., Macatingrao, C.N.E., Ordonez, J.I.A., Tavu, L.E.J., Pires, D., & Balendres, M.A.O. (2025). Pesticides in the environment: benefits, harms, and detection methods. Science, 7(4), 171. https://doi.org/10.3390/sci7040171
53. Yadav, I.C., & Devi, N.L. (2017). Pesticides classification and its impact on human and environment. Environ. Sci. Eng., 6, 140-158. https://doi.org/10.20546/IJCMAS.2019.803.224
54. Yang, Y., Guo, Y., Jia, X., Zhang, Q., Mao, J., Feng, Y., Yin, D., Zhao, W., Zhang, Y., & Ouyang, G. (2023). An ultrastable 2D covalent organic framework coating for headspace solid-phase microextraction of organochlorine pesticides in environmental water. J. Hazard Mater., 452, 131228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131228
55. Zaharia, R., Trotuș, E., Trașca, G., Georgescu, E., Șapcaliu, A., Fatu, V., Petrișor, C., & Mincea, C. (2023). Impact of seed treatment with imidacloprid, clothianidin and thiamethoxam on soil, plants, bees and hive products. Agriculture, 13(4), 830. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13040830
56. Zhou, Q., Kan, B., Jian, X., Zhang, W., Liu, H., & Zhang, Z. (2013). Paraquat poisoning by skin absorption: two case reports and a literature review. Exp. Ther. Med., 6(6), 1504-1506. https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2013.1320