TARİHSEL SÜREÇTE DEĞİŞEN JAPON ERKEKLİKLERİ

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 7 Sayı: 11, 170 - 199, 01.12.2020

Derya Ayten

Öz

Japonya örneğinde tarihsel süreç içerisinde değişen erkekliklerin incelenecek olduğu bu çalışmada, feodal dönemden başlayarak, Soğuk Savaş’ın sonuna kadar olan zaman dilimine bakılacaktır. Bu çerçevede, dört bölüme ayrılan ülke tarihi, bu dönemler içerisinde, erkekliğin nasıl algılanıp, icra edildiği üzerinden analiz edilecektir. Connell’ın “hegemonik erkeklik” savı temel alınarak, her bir döneme ait baskın erkeklik modeli anlatılmaya çalışılacaktır. Farklı dönemlerdeki baskın erkeklik modellerinin nasıl inşa edildiği, hangi söylem ve pratiklerle anlam bulduğu ve mevcut güç ilişkileri içerisinde nasıl konumlandığını ortaya koymak, bu çalışmanın amaçları arasında yer almaktadır. Her bir dönem içinde vücut bulan erkeklik hallerinin, hangi yönlerden birbirleriyle benzerlikler içerdiği ve ayrıştıkları yönlerin neler olduğuna da, ayrıca analiz içerisinde yer verilecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Japonya, hegemonik erkeklik, samuray, salaryman

Kaynakça

• Adamson, W. L. (1980). Hegemony and Revolution: A Study of Antonio Gramsci's Political and Cultural Theory. University of California Press, Berkeley.
• Akça Baştürk, E.,& Tönel, E. (2011). “Erkek(lik) Çalışmalarına Teorik Bir Çerçeve: Feminist Çalışmalardan Hegemonik Erkekliğe” (Ed. İ. Erdoğan), Medyada Hegemonik Erkek(lik) ve Temsil, ss. 11-39, Kalkedon, İstanbul.
• Allison, A. (1996). “Producing Mothers” (Ed. A. E. Imamura), Re-imagining Japanese Women, ss. 135–155, University of California Press, Berkeley.
• Andressen, C. (2002). A Short History of Japan: From Samurai to Sony. Allen & Unwin Publishing, Australia.
• Beasley, W. G. (1972). The Meiji Restoration. Stanford University Press, Stanford.
• Befu, H. (2001). Hegemony of Homogeneity: An Anthropological Analysis of Nihonjinron. Trans-Pacific Press, Melbourne.
• Berger, G. M. (1977). Parties out of Power in Japan, 1931-1941. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
• Borovoy, A. (2008). Japan's Hidden Youths: Mainstreaming the Emotionally Distressed in Japan, Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, 32(4): 552-577.
• Brod, H.,& Kaufman, M. (1994). “Introduction” (Ed. Harry Brod ve Michael Kaufman), Theorizing Masculinities, ss. 1-10, Sage Publications, California.
• Charlebois, J. Herbivore Masculinities in Post- Millennial Japan, East Asian Men, DOI 10.1057/978-1-137-55634-9_10, p. 165-181.
• Checkland, O. (1989). Britain’s Encounter with Meiji Japan, 1868- 1912. Macmillan, London.
• Cole, R. E. ,& and Tominaga, K. (1976). “Japan’s Changing Occupational Structure and Its Significance” (Ed. Hugh Patrick), Japan’s Industrialization and its Social Consequences, ss. 53-95, University of California Press, Berkeley.
• Connell, R. W. (1987). Gender and Power:Society, the Person and Sexual Politics. Polity Press, Cambridge.
• Connell, R.W. (2005). Masculinities. (2. Baskı). University of California Press, Berkeley.
• Cwiertka, K. J. (2006). Modern Japanese Cuisine: Food, Power and National Identity. Reaktion Books, London.
• Daizen, V. B. (2004). “When God(s) and Buddhas Go to War” (Ed. Mark Selden ve Alvin Y. So), War and State Terrorism: The United States, Japan, and the Asia-Pacific in the Long Twentieth Century, ss. 91- 118, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, New York.
• Dasgupta, R. (2013). Re-reading the Salaryman in Japan Crafting Masculinities. Routledge, Abingdon, Oxon.
• Dasgupta, R. (2017). Articulations of Salaryman Masculinity in Shôwa and Post- Shôwa Japan, Asia Pacific Perspectives, 15(1): 36-54.
• Dower, J. W. (1993). “Peace and Democracy in Two Systems: External Policy and Internal Conflict” (Ed. Andrew Gordon), Postwar Japan as History, ss. 3-33, University of California Press, Berkeley.
• Duus, P. (1976). Feudalism in Japan. (2. Baskı). Alfred A. Knopf, New York.
• Enloe, C. (2000). Maneuvers: The International Politics of Militarizing Women’s Lives. University of California Press, Berkeley, CA.
• Francks, P. (2006). Rural Economic Development in Japan: From the Nineteenth Century to the Pacific War. Routledge, New York.
• Friday, K. F. (2004). Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan. Routledge, New York. Frühstück, S. (2007). “The Spirit to Take Up a Gun: Militarizing Gender in the Imperial Army” (Ed. A. Germer, V. Mackie ve U. Wöhr), Gender, Nation and State in Modern Japan, ss. 163-179, Routledge, London.
• Gainty, D. (2015). “Marginal Centers: Martial Masculinities in Late Meiji Japan” (Ed. Pablo Dominguez Andersen ve Simon Wendt), Masculinities and the Nation in the Modern World: Between Hegemony and Marginalization, ss. 171-191, Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
• Gidoni, O. G. (2012). Housewives of Japan: An Ethnography of Real Lives and Consumerized Domesticity. Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
• Gordon, A. (2002). “The Short Happy Life of the Japanese Middle Class” (Ed. O. Zunz, L. Schoopa ve N. Hiwatari), Social Contracts under Stress: The Middle Classes of America, Europe, and Japan at the Turn of the Century, ss. 108–129, Russell Sage Foundation, New York.
• Gordon, M. (2003). “Can ‘a Real Man’ Live for His Family?: Ikigai and Masculinity in Today’s Japan” (Ed. James E. Roberson ve Nobue Suzuki), Men and Masculinities in Contemporary Japan: Dislocating the Salaryman Doxa, ss. 109–25, Routledge Curzon, London.
• Hidaka, T. (2010). Salaryman Masculinity: The Continuity of and Change in the Hegemonic Masculinity in Japan. BRILL, Leiden.
• https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja.html, 26.10.2020.
• Hunter, J. E. (2002). The Emergence of Modern Japan, An Introductory History since 1853. Routledge, UK.
• Ishii-Kuntz, M. (2003). “Balancing Fatherhood and Work: Emergence of Diverse Masculinities in Contemporary Japan” (Ed. James E. Roberson ve Noboe Suzuki), Men and Masculinities in Contemporary Japan: Dislocating the Salaryman Doxa, ss. 198–216, RoutledgeCurzon, London.
• Karlin, J. G. (2002). The Gender of Nationalism: Competing Masculinities in Meiji Japan, The Journal of Japanese Studies, 28(1): 41-77.
• Kawasaki, K. (1994). Youth Culture in Japan, Social Justice, 21: 185-205.
• Kunitake, K. (2009). Japan Rising: The Iwakura Embassy to the USA and Europe (Ed. Chushichi Tsuzuki ve R. Jules Young), Cambridge University Press, London.
• Lebra, T. S. (1993). Japanese Patterns of Behavior. (8. Baskı), University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.
• Levent, S. (2018). Militarizmden Pasifizme Geçişte Japonya: Askeri İdareden Sivil Yönetime, 1937-1960. Doğu Kütüphanesi, İstanbul.
• Levine, D. (2005). The Masculinity Ethic and the Spirit of Warriorhood in Ethiopian and Japanese Cultures, International Journal of Ethiopian Studies, 2 (1/2): 161-177.
• Long, S. O. (2005). “Constrained Person and Creative Agent: A Dying Student’s Narrative of Self and Others” (Ed. Jennifer Robertson), A Companion to the Anthropology of Japan, ss. 380-399, Wiley-Blackwell, USA.
• Low, M. (2003). “The Emperor’s Sons Go to War: Competing Masculinities in Modern Japan” (Ed. Kam Louie and Morris Low), Asian Masculinities: The Meaning and Practice of Manhood in China and Japan, ss. 81-99, Routledge Curzon, London.
• Mackie, V. (2002). “Embodiment, Citizenship and Social policy in Contemporary Japan” (Ed. Roger Goodman), Family and Social Policy in Japan: Anthropological Approaches, ss. 200–229, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
• Meyer, M.W. (2009). Japan: A Concise History. Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, USA.
• Miyazaki, K. (2011). “Valorising Samurai Masculinity through Biblical Language: Christianity, Oscar Wilde and Natsume Soseki’s Novel Kokoro” (Ed. John H. Arnold and Sean Brady), What is Masculinity? Historical Dynamics from Antiquity to the Contemporary World, ss. 370-388, Palgrave Macmillan, UK.
• Nakane, C. (1973). Japanese Society. University of California Press, Berkeley.
• Özbay, C.,& Baliç, İ. (2004). Erkekliğin Ev Halleri, Toplum ve Bilim, 101: 89-103.
• Palumbo F. A., & Herbig, P. A. (1994). Salaryman Sudden Death Syndrome, Employee Relations, 16(1): 54-61.
• Partner, S. (1999). Assembled in Japan: Electrical Goods and the Making of the Japanese Consumer. University of California Press, Berkeley.
• Pflugfelder, G. M. (1999). Cartographies of Desire: Male-Male Sexuality in Japanese Discourse, 1600–1950. University of California Press, Berkeley. Salazar, Y. Y. M. (2017) It is Not that I Can’t, It is that I Won’t: The Struggle of Japanese Women to Redefine Female Singlehood through Television Dramas, Asian Studies Review, 41(4): 526-543.
• Shibata, Y. (2007). “A Sociological History of Salarymen and Japan's Modernization”, Doktora Tezi, City University of New York, New York.
• Starrs, R. (2011). Modernism and Japanese Culture. Palgrave Macmillan, London.
• Sullivan, J. J., & Peterson, R. B. (1991). A Test of Theories Underlying the Japanese Lifetime Employment System, Journal of International Business Studies, 22: 79–97.
• Takeuchi, Y. (1997). The Self-activating Entrance Examination System – Its Hidden Agenda and Its Correspondence with the Japanese “Salaryman”, Higher Education, 34:183–198.
• Turnbull, S. (2003). Samurai: The World of the Warrior. Osprey Publishing, Oxford.
• Ueno, C. (1995). “Oyaji” ni naritakunai kimi no tame no menzu ribu no susume” (An Encouragement of Men’s Lib for you who don’t want to turn into an ‘Oyaji’) (Ed. T. Inoue, Y. Ehara ve C. Ueno), Danseigaku (Men’s Studies), ss. 1-37, Iwanami Shoten, Tokyo. Vaporis, C. N. (2009).Tour of Duty: Samurai, Military Service in Edo, and the Culture of Early Modern Japan. University of Hawaii Press, Hawaii.
• Vaporis, C. N. (2020). “Samurai, Masculinity and Violence in Japan” (Ed. R. Antony, S. Carroll ve C. D. Pennock), The Cambridge World History of Violence, ss. 236-254, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
• Vogel, E. F. (1991). Japan’s New Middle Class: The Salaryman and His Family in a Tokyo Suburb. University of California Press, Berkeley.
• Vogel, S.H. (1986). Toward Understanding the Adjustment Problems of Foreign Families in the College Community: The Case of Japanese Wives at the Harvard University Health Services, Journal of American College Health, 34(6): 274–279.
• Wagatsuma, H. (1977). Some Aspects of Contemporary Japanese Family: Once Confucian, Now Fatherless?, Daedalus, 106:181–210.
• Wetherell, M.,& Edley, N. (1999). Negotiating Hegemonic Masculinity: Imaginary Positions and Psycho-Discursive Practices, Feminism & Psychology, 9(3): 335-356.
• Yamashita, J. T. (2011). A War Within World War II: Racialized Masculinity and Citizenship of Japanese Americans and Korean Colonial Subjects, History Honors Projects, Paper 10: 1-90.