Guide-to-Tourist Interaction in Guided Tours: A Participant Observation Research

Öz

This research aims to discover how the social interaction between the professional tourist guide, who is the primary service provider in guided tours, and the tourists participating in the tour occurs and to reveal the impression management techniques applied by the tour guide in this process. Following the qualitative research approach, data was collected from a four-day Black Sea region tour using participant observation. The field notes obtained during the participant observation were subjected to content analysis. Subcategories and categories were created from the data to explain the tour guide-tourist interaction in detail. In the next stage, two themes were revealed: guide-based interaction and tourist-based interaction. In this context, it has been revealed that guide-tourist interaction occurs through first impression, expression, authoritarian behavior, compliant behavior, one-to-one communication, aggressive behavior, and one-sided interaction. In addition, it was concluded that the impression management techniques used by the guide during the tour were ingratiation, exemplification, self-promotion, and intimidation. The results were interpreted in the context of social interaction theory, and the theoretical and practical contributions of the research were discussed.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Social interaction
• Guided tours
• Guide-to-tourist interaction
• Impression management
• Participant observation

Rehberli Turlarda Rehber-Turist Etkileşimi: Bir Katılımcı Gözlem Araştırması

Öz

Bu araştırmada, rehberli turlarda temel hizmet sağlayıcı olan profesyonel turist rehberi ile tura katılan turistler arasındaki sosyal etkileşimin nasıl gerçekleştiğini keşfetmek ve rehberin bu süreçte uyguladığı izlenim yönetimi tekniklerini açığa çıkarmak amaçlanmıştır. Nitel araştırma yaklaşımı benimsenerek, dört günlük bir Karadeniz turundan katılımcı gözlem tekniğiyle veri toplanmıştır. Katılımcı gözlem sürecindeki saha notları içerik analiziyle çözümlenmiştir. Rehber-turist etkileşiminin detaylı şekilde açıklanabilmesi için verilerden alt kategoriler ve kategoriler oluşturulmuş; rehber kaynaklı etkileşim ve turist kaynaklı etkileşim olmak üzere iki tema ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Bu çerçevede rehber-turist etkileşiminin ilk izlenim yoluyla, anlatım yoluyla, otoriter davranış yoluyla, uyumlu davranış yoluyla, birebir iletişim yoluyla, agresif davranış yoluyla ve tek taraflı etkileşim yoluyla gerçekleştiği belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca, rehberin tur sürecinde kullandığı izlenim yönetimi tekniklerinin kendini sevdirme, örnek olma, kendini övme/niteliklerini tanıtma ve yıldırma/gözdağı verme olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Ulaşılan sonuçlar sosyal etkileşim teorisi bağlamında yorumlanmış, araştırmanın teorik ve pratik katkıları tartışılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Sosyal etkileşim
• Rehberli turlar
• Rehber-turist etkileşimi
• İzlenim yönetimi
• Katılımcı gözlem

Kaynakça

1. Acar, V. ve Tanrısevdi, A. (2019). Participant Observations on Iranian Tourists Taking Part in Guided Excursions: The Case of Kuşadası Turkey, MANAS Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 8 (2): 2187-2213.
2. Acar, V. ve Tanrısevdi, A. (2021). Paket Tur Katılımcısı Turistlerin Davranışlarının İncelenmesi: Güney Koreli Turistlere Yönelik Bir Katılımlı Gözlem Çalışması, Marmara Üniversitesi Öneri Dergisi, 16 (56): 792-824.
3. Adam, I., Taale, F. ve Adongo, C. A. (2020). Measuring Negative Tourist-to-Tourist Interaction: Scale Development and Validation, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 37 (3): 287-301.
4. Akbulut, Y. (2012). Veri Çözümleme Teknikleri. İçinde; A. Şimşek (Editör) Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri (ss. 162-195). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi.
5. Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
6. Allport, G. W. (1979). The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge, MA: Addison-Wesley.
7. Alnawas, I. ve Brown, J. H. (2019). Examining the Key Dimensions of Customer Experience Quality in the Hotel Industry, Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, 28 (7): 833-861.
8. Ap, J. ve Wong, K. K. F. (2001). Case Study on Tour Guiding: Professionalism, Issues, and Problems, Tourism Management, 22: 551-563.

9. Apak, Ö. C. ve Gürbüz, A. (2022). Sürdürülebilir Restoran İşletmeciliği Uygulamaları Üzerine Bir İçerik Analizi, Güncel Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6 (1): 194-209.
10. Bai, S. ve Chang, H. H. (2023). Effect of Tourist-to-Tourist Encounters: Increased Conflict or Reduced Social Distance?, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 47 (1): 207-234.
11. Bimonte, S. ve Punzo, L. F. (2007). The Evolutionary Game between Tourist and Resident Populations and Tourist Carrying Capacity, International Journal of Technology and Globalization, 3 (1): 73-87.
12. Bowie, D. ve Chang, J. C. (2005). Tourist Satisfaction: A View from a Mixed International Guided Package Tour, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 11 (4): 303-322.
13. Bozeman, D. P. ve Kacmar, K. M. (1997). A Cybernetic Model of Impression Management Processes in Organizations, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 69 (1): 9-30.
14. Chiang, C. Y. ve Chen, W. C. (2014). The Impression Management Techniques of Tour Leaders in Group Package Tour Service Encounters, Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 31: 747-762.
15. Choo, H. ve Petrick, J. F. (2014). Social Interactions and Intentions to Revisit for Agritourism Service Encounters, Tourism Management, 40: 372-381.
16. Cohen, E. (1985). The Tourist Guide - The Origins, Structure and Dynamics of a Role, Annals of Tourism Research, 12: 5-29.
17. Çetin, G. ve Yarcan, Ş. (2017). The Professional Relationship between Tour Guides and Tour Operators, Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 17 (4): 1-13.
18. Dahles, H. (2002). The Politics of Tour Guiding: Image Management in Indonesia, Annals of Tourism Research, 29 (3): 783-800.
19. Decrop, A. (2004). Trustworthiness in Qualitative Tourism Research. İçinde; J. Phillimore ve L. Goodson (Editörler) Qualitative Research in Tourism (ss. 156-159). Londra: Routledge.
20. DeWalt, K. M. ve DeWalt, B. R. (2011). Participant Observation: A Guide for Fieldworkers (İkinci Basım). ABD: AltaMira Press.
21. Dikmen, H. ve Avan, A. (2020). Termal Otel İşletmelerinde Hizmet Karşılaşması: Yönetsel Bir Bakış Açısı, Türk Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4 (3): 2783-2807.
22. Doyle, J. ve Kelliher, F. (2023). Bringing the Past to Life: Co-creating Tourism Experiences in Historic House Tourist Attractions, Tourism Management, 94, 104656.
23. Drory, A. ve Zaidman, N. (2007). Impression Management Behavior: Effects of the Organizational System, Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22 (3): 290-308.
24. Fan, D. X. F., Zhang, H. Q., Jenkins, C. L. ve Tavitiyaman, P. (2017). Tourist Typology in Social Contact: An Addition to Existing Theories, Tourism Management, 60: 357-366.
25. Farmaki, A. ve Stergiou, D. P. (2019). Escaping Loneliness through Airbnb Host-Guest Interactions, Tourism Management, 74: 331-333.
26. Gabbott, M. ve Hogg, G. (2000). An Empirical Investigation of the Impact of Non-verbal Communication on Service Evaluation, European Journal of Marketing, 34 (3/4): 384-398.
27. Gazzoli, G., Hancer, M. ve Kim B. C. (2013). Explaining Why Employee-Customer Orientation Influences Customers’ Perceptions of the Service Encounter, Journal of Service Management, 24 (4): 382-400.
28. Goffman, E. (1959). The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. New York: Doubleday.
29. Gold, R. L. (1958). Roles in Sociological Field Observations, Social Forces, 36: 217-223.
30. Grove, S. J. ve Fisk, R. P. (1997). The Impact of Other Customers on Service Experiences: A Critical Incident Examination of "Getting Along", Journal of Retailing, 73 (1): 63-85.
31. Güler, O. ve Çakıcı, A. C. (2020). How a Group Service Failure at a Restaurant Turns into an Individual Dissatisfaction? A Scenario-Based Experiment, Journal of Multidisciplinary Academic Tourism, 5 (2): 125-141.
32. Günaydın, Y. ve Kozak, M. (2022). Pandemi Sürecinde Turistlerin Karar Verme Davranışları ve Tatil Deneyimleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma, Tüketici ve Tüketim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 14 (1): 107-142.
33. Holloway, J. C. (1981). The Guided Tour – A Sociological Approach, Annals of Tourism Research, 8 (3): 377-402.
34. Huang, J. ve Hsu, C. H. C. (2010). The Impact of Customer-to-Customer Interaction on Cruise Experience and Vacation Satisfaction, Journal of Travel Research, 49 (1): 79-92.
35. Islam, M. S. ve Kirillova, K. (2020). Non-verbal Communication in Hospitality: At the Intersection of Religion and Gender, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 84, 102326.
36. Jarvis, N., Weeden, C., Ladkin, A. ve Taylor, T. (2022). Intergroup Contact between Front-line Cruise Staff and LGBT Passengers, Tourism Management Perspectives, 42, 100960.
37. Jones, E. E., ve Pittman, T. S. (1982). Toward a General Theory of Strategic Self-Presentation. İçinde; J. Suls (Editör) Psychological Perspectives on the Self (ss. 231-262). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
38. Joo, D., Tasci, A. D. A., Woosnam, K. M., Maruyama, N. U., Hollas, C. R. ve Aleshinloye, K. D. (2018). Residents' Attitude towards Domestic Tourists Explained by Contact, Emotional Solidarity, and Social Distance, Tourism Management, 64: 245-257.
39. Kakkar, V. ve Li, K. K. (2022). Cash or Card? Impression Management and Restaurant Tipping Behavior, Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, 97, 101837.
40. Kalyoncu, M. ve Yuksek, G. (2017). The Effect of Impression Management Techniques Which Tourist Guides Use in Package Tours on Personal Interaction Quality, Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Management, 5 (1): 15-25.
41. Keskin Pulluk, S. ve Sop, S. A. (2022). Turizmde Hizmet Sağlayıcı-Misafir Etkileşimi. İçinde; M. Yeşiltaş (Editör) 22. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı (ss.181-187). Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.
42. Leary, M. R. ve Kowalski, R. M. (1990). Impression Management: A Literature Review and Two-component Model, Psychological Bulletin, 107 (1): 34-47.
43. Li, F. S. ve Wang, B. (2020). Social Contact Theory and Attitude Change through Tourism: Researching Chinese Visitors to North Korea, Tourism Management Perspectives, 36, 100743.
44. Liden, R. C. ve Mitchell, T. R. (1988). Ingratiatory Behaviors in Organizational Setting, Academy of Management Review, 13 (4): 572-587.
45. Lin, H., Tian, J., Kong, Y. ve Gao, J. (2022). Impact of Tour Guide Humor on Tourist Pro-Environmental Behavior: Utilizing the Conservation of Resources Theory, Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 25, 100728.
46. Lin, I. Y. ve Mattila, A. S. (2010). Restaurant Servicescape, Service Encounter, and Perceived Congruency on Customers’ Emotions and Satisfaction, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 19: 819-841.
47. Liu-Lastres, B. ve Cahyanto, I. P. (2021). Exploring the Host-Guest Interaction in Tourism Crisis Communication, Current Issues in Tourism, 24 (15): 2097-2109.
48. Lo, I. S. ve McKercher, B. (2015). Ideal Image in Process: Online Tourist Photography and Impression Management, Annals of Tourism Research, 52: 104-116.
49. Lugosi, P. ve Bray, J. (2008). Tour Guiding, Organisational Culture and Learning: Lessons from an Entrepreneurial Company, International Journal of Tourism Research, 10 (5): 467-479.
50. Lynn, M., Le, J. ve Sherwyn, D. (1998). Reach Out and Touch Your Customers, The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly, 39 (3): 60-65.
51. Pabel, A. ve Pearce, P. L. (2018). Selecting Humour in Tourism Settings – A Guide for Tourism Operators, Tourism Management Perspectives, 25: 64-70.
52. Pearce, P. L. (2005). Tourist Behaviour: Themes and Conceptual Schemes. New York: Channel View Publications.
53. Pettigrew, T. F. (1998). Intergroup Contact Theory, Annual Review of Psychology, 49 (1): 65-85.
54. Pettigrew, T. F. ve Tropp, L. R. (2006). A Meta-Analytic Test of Intergroup Contact Theory, Journal of Personality and Social Psychological, 90 (5): 751-783.
55. Prayag, G. ve Ryan, C. (2012). Visitor Interactions with Hotel Employees: The Role of Nationality, International Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research, 6 (2): 173-185.
56. Pu, P., Cheng, L., Samarathunga, W. ve Wall, G. (2023). Tour Guides’ Sustainable Tourism Practices in Host-Guest Interactions: When Tibet Meets the West, Tourism Review, 78 (3): 808-833.
57. Reisinger, Y. ve Turner, L. (1998). Cultural Differences between Mandarin-Speaking Tourists and Australian Hosts and Their Impact on Cross-Cultural Tourist-Host Interaction, Journal of Business Research, 42: 175-187.
58. Reisinger, Y. ve Turner, L. W. (2003). Cross-Cultural Behavior in Tourism: Concepts and Analysis. Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann.
59. Ruan, Y. (2020). Perceived Host-Guest Sociability Similarity and Participants’ Satisfaction: Perspectives of Airbnb Guests and Hosts, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 45: 419-428.
60. Seaton, A. V. (2002). Observing Conducted Tours: The Ethnographic Context in Tourist Research, Journal of Vacation Marketing, 8 (4): 309-319.
61. Schlenker, B. R. (1980). Impression Management: The Self-Concept, Social Identity, and Interpersonal Relations. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
62. Sharpley, R. (2014). Host Perceptions of Tourism: A Review of The Research, Tourism Management, 42: 37-49.
63. Solnet, D. (2007). Employee-Customer Linkages: A Social Identification Perspective in a Hotel Industry Context, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 14 (2): 129-143.
64. Sop, S. A., Günaydın, Y. ve Kozak, M. (2023). Turist-Turist Etkileşimi: Her Şey Dahil Otel Örneği, Güncel Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7 (1): 84-105.
65. Stevens, C. K. ve Kristof, A. L. (1995). Making the Right Impression: A Field Study of Applicant Impression Management During Job Interviews, Journal of Applied Psychology, 80 (5): 587-606.
66. Su, M. M. ve Wall, G. (2010). Implications of Host-Guest Interactions for Tourists' Travel Behavior and Experiences, Tourism Original Scientific Paper, 58 (1): 37-50.
67. Tabaeeian, R. A., Yazdi, A., Mokhtari, N. ve Khoshfetrat, A. (2023). Host-Tourist Interaction, Revisit Intention and Memorable Tourism Experience through Relationship Quality and Perceived Service Quality in Ecotourism, Journal of Ecotourism, 22 (3): 406-429.
68. Tedeschi, J. T. ve Riess, M. (1981). Impression Management Theory and Social Psychological Research. New York: Academic.
69. Toker, A. (2022). Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Veri Analizi İçin Bir Kılavuz, Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 51 (Özel Sayı 1): 319-345.
70. Torres, E. N. (2015). The Influence of Others on the Vacation Experience: An Ethnographic Study of Psychographics, Decision Making, and Group Dynamics among Young Travelers, Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 24: 826-856.
71. Torres, E. N. (2016). Guest Interactions and the Formation of Memorable Experiences: An Ethnography, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 28 (10): 2132-2155.
72. Wayne, S. J. ve Liden, R. C. (1995). Effects of Impression Management on Performance Ratings: A Longitudinal Study, The Academy of Management Journal, 38 (1): 232-260.
73. Weiler, B. ve Ham, S. H. (2002). Tour Guide Training: A Model for Sustainable Capacity Building in Developing Countries, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 10 (1): 52-68.
74. Weiler, B. ve Walker, K. (2014). Enhancing the Visitor Experience: Reconceptualising the Tour Guide's Communicative Role, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 21: 90-99.
75. Weiler, B. ve Yu, X. (2007). Dimensions of Cultural Mediation in Guiding Chinese Tour Groups: Implications for Interpretation, Tourism Recreation Research, 32 (3): 13-22.
76. Wu, C. H. J. (2007). The Impact of Customer-to-Customer Interaction and Customer Homogeneity on Customer Satisfaction in Tourism Service-the Service Encounter Prospective, Tourism Management, 28: 1518-1528.
77. Wu, C. H. J. ve Liang, R. D. (2009). Effect of Experiential Value on Customer Satisfaction with Service Encounters in Luxury-Hotel Restaurants, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28: 586-593.
78. Xue, L., Leung, X. Y. ve Ma, S. D. (2022). What Makes a Good “Guest”: Evidence from Airbnb Hosts' Reviews, Annals of Tourism Research, 95, 103426.
79. Yan, L. ve Ho, H. K. (2017). Impression Management of Tour Leaders, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 22 (4): 422-435.
80. Yarcan, Ş. (2007). Profesyonel Turist Rehberliğinde Mesleki Etik Üzerine Kavramsal Bir Değerlendirme, Anatolia Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 18 (1): 33-44.
81. Yin, R. K. (2015). Qualitative Research from Start to Finish (İkinci Basım). New York: Guilford Press.
82. Zatori, A., Smith, M. K. ve Puczko, L. (2018). Experience Involvement, Memorability, and Authenticity: The Service Provider’s Effect on Tourist Experience, Tourism Management, 67: 111-126.
83. Zhang, H. Q. ve Chow, I. (2004). Application of Importance-Performance Model in Tour Guides’ Performance: Evidence from Mainland Chinese Outbound Visitors in Hong Kong, Tourism Management, 25: 81-91.
84. Zhu, D. ve Xu, H. (2021). Guides’ Handling of Multiple Roles in Interactions with Tourists: The Prism of Impression Management, Tourism Management, 85, 104306.