The Mediation Effect of Emotional Intelligence on the Relationship Between Culture and Conflict Resolution Strategies within the Context of Expatriation

Abstract

This study offers an integrative perspective for the interrelations between culture, emotional intelligence, and conflict resolution strategies within the context of expatriation. Based on a dataset collected from expatriates living in Turkey, this study aims to uncover the mediating role of emotional intelligence on the relationship between cultural dimensions and conflict resolution strategies. Data was analyzed through PLS-SEM software program. The findings of the study show that while emotional intelligence fully mediates the relationship between Confronting and Vertical Collectivism, Horizontal Individualism and Forcing, Vertical Individualism and Smoothing conflict resolution strategies, the rest of the findings vary between partial and no mediation. This study highlights the mediation effect of emotional intelligence and the predictive power of culture at individual level on emotional intelligence and conflict resolution strategies within the context of expatriation. While previous research has focused on emotional intelligence and culture as antecedents of conflict resolution strategies, studies that analyze these variables through a wholistic view are rare. Although this study has some limitations, it highlights how culture at individual level is influential on individual emotional intelligence and conflict resolution strategies. This wholistic approach provides the insight that through cultural orientations can shape individuals’ both emotional intelligence and preference of conflict resolution strategies which shows the importance of cultural orientations for expatriates..

Keywords

• Culture
• emotional ıntelligence
• expatriate
• conflict resolution

Göçmenlik Bağlamında Kültür ve Çatışma Çözme Stratejileri Arasındaki İlişkide Duygusal Zekanın Aracılık Etkisi

Öz

Bu çalışma, göç bağlamında kültür, duygusal zeka ve çatışma çözüm stratejileri arasındaki karşılıklı ilişkiler için bütünleştirici bir bakış açısı sunmaktadır.Türkiye'de yaşayan göçmenlerden toplanan bir veri setine dayanan bu çalışma, kültürel boyutlar ve çatışma çözüm stratejileri arasındaki ilişkide duygusal zekanın aracılık rolünü ortaya çıkarmayı amaçlamaktadır. Veriler PLS-SEM yazılım programı aracılığıyla analiz edilmiştir. Çalışmanın bulguları, Duygusal Zekanın Yüzleşme ve Dikey Kolektivizm, Yatay Bireycilik ve Zorlama, Dikey Bireycilik ve Yumuşatma çatışma çözüm stratejileri arasındaki ilişkiye tam olarak aracılık ederken, bulguların geri kalanının kısmi ve hiç aracılık olmadığı arasında değiştiğini göstermektedir. Bu çalışma, göç bağlamında duygusal zekanın aracılık etkisini ve kültürün duygusal zeka ve çatışma çözüm stratejileri üzerindeki bireysel düzeydeki öngörücü gücünü vurgulamaktadır. Önceki araştırmalar, çatışma çözüm stratejilerinin öncülleri olarak duygusal zekaya ve kültüre odaklanmış olsa da, bu değişkenleri bütünsel bir bakış açısıyla analiz eden çalışmalar nadirdir. Bu çalışmanın bazı sınırlamaları olmasına rağmen, bireysel düzeyde kültürün bireysel duygusal zeka ve çatışma çözme stratejileri üzerinde nasıl etkili olduğunu vurgulamaktadır. Bu bütünsel yaklaşım, kültürel yönelimler aracılığıyla bireylerin hem duygusal zekalarının hem de çatışma çözme stratejileri tercihlerinin etkilenebileceğine dair içgörü sağlar ve bu da kültürel yönelimlerin göçmenler için önemini göstermektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Kültür
• duygusal zeka
• göçmen
• çatışma çözümü

Kaynakça

1. Abraham, R. (2005). Emotional intelligence in the workplace: A review and synthesis. In R. Schulze & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), Emotional intelligence: An International Handbook (pp. 255-270). Hogrefe & Huber.
2. Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modeling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411–423.
3. Barbuto, J. E., Jr., Phipps, K. A., & Xu, Y. (2010) Testing relationships between personality, conflict styles and effectiveness. International Journal of Conflict Management, 21(4), 434-447.
4. Baruch, Y., Altman, Y., & Tung, R. L. (2016). Career mobility in a global era: Advances in managing expatriation and repatriation. The Academy of Management Annals, 10(1), 841-889.
5. Bhullar, N., Schutte, N. S., & Malouff, J. M. (2012). Associations of individualistic-collectivistic orientations with emotional intelligence, mental health, and satisfaction with life: A tale of two countries. Individual Differences Research, 10(3), 165-175.
6. Blake, R., & Mouton, J. (1964). The managerial grid: The key to leadership excellence. Gulf Publishing.
7. Bono, J. E., & Barron, L. G. (2008). Leaders as emotional managers, across cultures. In N. M. Ashkanasy & C. L. Cooper (Eds.), Research Companion to Emotion in Organizations (pp. 489-498). Edward Elgar.
8. Boroş, S., Meslec, N., Curşeu, P. L., & Emons, W. (2010). Struggles for cooperation: Conflict resolution strategies in multicultural groups. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 25(5), 539-554.

9. Bowling, D., & Hoffman, D. (2000). Bringing peace into the room: The personal qualities of the mediator and their impact on the mediation. Negotiation Journal, 16(1), 5-28.
10. Bozionelos, N., & Singh, S. K. (2017). The relationship of emotional intelligence with task and contextual performance: More than it meets the linear eye. Personality and Individual Differences, 116(1), 206-211.
11. Bradford, K. D., Stringfellow, A., & Weitz, B. A. (2004). Managing conflict to improve the effectiveness of retail networks. Journal of Retailing, 80(3), 181-195.
12. Cai, D., & Fink, E. (2002). Conflict style differences between individualists and collectivists. Communication Monographs, 69(1), 67-87.
13. Carpenter, M. A., Sanders, W. G., & Gregersen, H. B. (2001). Bundling human capital with organizational context: the impact of international assignment experience on multinational firm performance and CEO pay. Academy of Management Journal, 44(3), 493-511.
14. Cavusgil, T., Yavas, U., & Bykowicz, S. (1992). Preparing executives for overseas assignments. Management Decision, 30(1), 54-58.
15. Chen, X. H., Zhao, K., Liu, X., & Wu, D. D. (2012). Improving employees' job satisfaction and innovation performance using conflict management. International Journal of Conflict Management, 23(2), 151-172.
16. Chen, Y., Tjosvold, D., & Fang, S. (2005). Working with foreign managers: Conflict management for effective leader relationships in China. International Journal of Conflict Management, 16(3), 265-286.
17. Cherniss, C. (2001). Emotional intelligence and organizational effectiveness. In C. Cherniss & D. Goleman (Eds.), The emotionally intelligent workplace: How to select for, measure, and improve emotional intelligence in individuals, groups, and organizations (pp. 27-44). Jossey-Bass.
18. Chiou, J. S. (2001). Horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism among college students in the United States, Taiwan, and Argentina. The Journal of Social Psychology, 141(5), 667-678.
19. Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Psychological Assessment, 7(3), 309-319.
20. Clarke, N. (2010). The impact of a training programme designed to target the emotional intelligence abilities of project managers. International Journal of Project Management, 28(5), 461-468.
21. Crowne, K. A. (2013). Cultural exposure, emotional intelligence, and cultural intelligence: An exploratory study. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 13(1), 5-22.
22. Dallinger, J. M. & Hample, D. (1995). Personalizing and managing conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 6(3), 273-289.
23. Daus, C. S., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2005). The case for the ability‐based model of emotional intelligence in organizational behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 26(4), 453-466.
24. De Dreu, C. K. W., & Weingart, L. R. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4), 741-749.
25. De Dreu, C. K.W., Evers, A., Beersma, B., Kluwer, E. S., & Nauta, A. (2001). A theory‐based measure of conflict management strategies in the workplace. Journal of Organizational Behavior: The International Journal of Industrial, Occupational and Organizational Psychology and Behavior, 22(6), 645-668.
26. Dusi, P., Messetti, G. & Steinbach, M. (2014). Skills, attitudes, relational abilities and reflexivity: Competences for a multicultural society. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 112(1), 538-547.
27. Earley, P. C., & Ang, S. (2003). Cultural intelligence: Individual interactions across cultures. Stanford University Press.
28. Ekermans, G. (2009). Emotional intelligence across cultures: Theoretical and methodological considerations. In C. Stough, D. H. Saklofske, & J. D. Parker (Eds.), Assessing Emotional Intelligence (pp. 259-290). Springer.
29. Fang, T. (2003). A critique of Hofstede’s fifth national culture dimension. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 3(3), 347-368.
30. Fischer, J. (2016). Leader emotion management behavior and perceived leader effectiveness: The moderating roles of gender and culture (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Florida Institute of Technology, Melbourne, FL.
31. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error: Algebra and statistics. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(3), 382–388.
32. Geisser, S. (1974). A predictive approach to the random effect model. Biometrika, 61(1), 101–107.
33. Goleman, D. (1998). Working with emotional intelligence. Bantam Books.
34. Gomez, C., & Taylor, K. A. (2018). Cultural differences in conflict resolution strategies: A US–Mexico comparison. International Journal of Cross-Cultural Management, 18(1), 33–51.
35. Gonçalves, G., Reis, M., Sousa, C., Santos, J., Orgambídez-Ramos, A., & Scott, P. (2016). Cultural intelligence and conflict management styles. International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 24(4), 725–742.
36. Gross, M. A., & Guerrero, L. K. (2000). Managing conflict appropriately and effectively: An application of the competence model to Rahim's organizational conflict strategies. International Journal of Conflict Management, 11(3), 200–226.
37. Gunkel, M., Schlaegel, C., & Taras, V. (2016). Cultural values, emotional intelligence, and conflict handling strategies: A global study. Journal of World Business, 51(4), 568–585.
38. Gunkel, M., Schlägel, C., & Engle, R. L. (2014). Culture's influence on emotional intelligence: An empirical study of nine countries. Journal of International Management, 20(2), 256–274.
39. Hair Jr, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C., & Sarstedt, M. (2016). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM). Sage Publications.
40. Hammer, M. R. (1987). Behavioral dimensions of intercultural effectiveness. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 11, 65–88.
41. Hammer, M. R., Gudykunst, W. B., & Wiseman, R. L. (1978). Dimensions of intercultural effectiveness: An exploratory study. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 2, 382–393.
42. Harman, H. H. (1976). Modern factor analysis. University of Chicago Press.
43. Henseler, J., & Chin, W. W. (2010). A comparison of approaches for the analysis of interaction effects between latent variables using partial least squares path modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 17(1), 82–109.
44. Herkenhoff, L. (2004). Culturally tuned emotional intelligence: An effective change management tool? Strategic Change, 13(2), 73–81.
45. Hofstede, G. (1983). The cultural relativity of organizational practices and theories. Journal of International Business Studies, 14(2), 75–89.
46. Hofstede, G. (1984). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Sage Publications.
47. Hofstede, G. H. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
48. Holt, J. L., & DeVore, C. J. (2005). Culture, gender, organizational role, and styles of conflict resolution: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(2), 165–196.
49. Jassawalla, A., Truglia, C., & Garvey, J. (2004). Cross-cultural conflict and expatriate manager adjustment: An exploratory study. Management Decision, 42(7), 837–849.
50. Jordan, P. J., & Troth, A. C. (2004). Managing emotions during team problem solving: Emotional intelligence and conflict resolution. Human Performance, 17(2), 195–218.
51. Kaushal, R., & Kwantes, T. (2006). The role of culture in choice of conflict management strategy. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30(5), 579–603.
52. Kim, R., & Coleman, P. T. (2015). The combined effect of individualism-collectivism on conflict styles and satisfaction: An analysis at the individual level. Peace and Conflict Studies, 22(2), 137–159.
53. Kim, T. Y., Wang, C., Kondo, M., & Kim, T. H. (2007). Conflict management styles: The differences among the Chinese, Japanese, and Koreans. International Journal of Conflict Management, 18(1), 23–41.
54. Kitayama, S. E., & Markus, H. R. E. (1994). Emotion and culture: Empirical studies of mutual influence. American Psychological Association.
55. Kluckhohn, C. (1951). Values and value-orientations in the theory of action: An exploration in definition and classification. In T. Parsons & E. Shils (Eds.), Toward a general theory of action (pp. 388-433). Harvard University Press.
56. Komarraju, M., & Cokley, K. O. (2008). Horizontal and vertical dimensions of individualism-collectivism: A comparison of African Americans and European Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 14(4), 336–343.
57. Komarraju, M., Dollinger, S. J., & Lovell, J. L. (2008). Individualism-collectivism in horizontal and vertical directions as predictors of conflict management styles. International Journal of Conflict Management, 19(1), 20–35.
58. Kroeber, A. L., & Kluckhohn, C. (1952). Culture: A critical review of concepts and definitions (Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, Vol. 47, No. 1, p. 223).
59. Leung, K. (1997). Negotiation and reward allocations across cultures. In P. C. Earley & M. Erez (Eds.), New perspectives on international industrial/organizational psychology (pp. 640–675). Jossey-Bass.
60. Luomala, H. T., Kumar, R., Worm, V., & Singh, J. D. (2004). Cross-cultural differences in mood-regulation: An empirical comparison of individualistic and collectivistic cultures. Journal of International Consumer Marketing, 16(4), 39–62.
61. Ma, Z., Erkus, A., & Tabak, A. (2010). Explore the impact of collectivism on conflict management styles: A Turkish study. International Journal of Conflict Management, 21(2), 169–185.
62. Marsh, A. A., Elfenbein, H. A., & Ambady, N. (2003). Nonverbal “accents”: Cultural differences in facial expressions of emotion. Psychological Science, 14(4), 373–376.
63. Matsumoto, D. (1989). Cultural influences on the perception of emotion. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 20(1), 92–105.
64. Matsumoto, D., Yoo, S. H., Nakagawa, S., & Members of the Multinational Study of Cultural Display Rules. (2008). Culture, emotion regulation, and adjustment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94(6), 925–937.
65. Mayer, J. D. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications for educators (pp. 3–31). Basic Books.
66. Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1995). Emotional intelligence and the construction and regulation of feelings. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 4(3), 197–208.
67. Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsade, S. G. (2008). Human abilities: Emotional intelligence. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 507–536.
68. McSweeney, B. (2002). Hofstede’s model of national cultural differences and their consequences: A triumph of faith–a failure of analysis. Human Relations, 55(1), 89–118.
69. McSweeney, B. (2002). The essentials of scholarship: A reply to Geert Hofstede. Human Relations, 55(11), 1363–1372.
70. Miao, C., Humphrey, R. H., & Qian, S. (2018). A cross-cultural meta-analysis of how leader emotional intelligence influences subordinate task performance and organizational citizenship behavior. Journal of World Business, 53(4), 463–474.
71. Morrison, J. (2008). The relationship between emotional intelligence competencies and preferred conflict‐handling styles. Journal of Nursing Management, 16(8), 974–983.
72. Nunnally, J. C. (1982). Reliability of measurement. In Encyclopedia of educational research (Vol. 4). Free Press.
73. Oyserman, D. (2017). Culture three ways: Culture and subcultures within countries. Annual Review of Psychology, 68, 435-463.
74. Oyserman, D., & Lee, S. W. S. (2008). Does culture influence what and how we think? Effects of priming individualism and collectivism. Psychological Bulletin, 134(2), 311–342.
75. Oyserman, D., Kemmelmeier, M., & Coon, H. M. (2002). Cultural psychology, a new look: Reply to Bond (2002), Fiske (2002),
76. Kitayama (2002), and Miller (2002). Psychological Bulletin, 128(1), 110–119.
77. Perez-Diaz, P. A., Li, M., Mao, Y., & Petrides, K. V. (2018). A multilevel model of teachers' job performance: Understanding the effects of trait emotional intelligence, job satisfaction, and organizational trust. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 2420.
78. Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2001). Trait emotional intelligence: Psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies. European Journal of Personality, 15(6), 425–448.
79. Petrides, K. V., Mikolajczak, M., Mavroveli, S., Sanchez-Ruiz, M. J., Furnham, A., & Pérez-González, J. C. (2016). Developments in trait emotional intelligence research. Emotion Review, 8(4), 335–341.
80. Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 531–544.
81. Posthuma, R. A., White III, G. O., Dworkin, J. B., Yánez, O., & Swift, M. S. (2006). Conflict resolution styles between co-workers in US and Mexican cultures. International Journal of Conflict Management, 17(3), 242–260.
82. Pruitt, D. G., & Kim, S. H. (2004). Social conflict: Escalation, stalemate, and settlement (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
83. Rahim, A. (2002). Toward a theory of managing organizational conflict. International Journal of Conflict Management, 13(3), 206–235.
84. Rahim, A., & Bonoma, T. V. (1979). Managing organizational conflict: A model for diagnosis and intervention. Psychological Reports, 44(3), 1323–1344.
85. Rahim, M. A. (1983). A measure of styles of handling interpersonal conflict. Academy of Management Journal, 26(2), 368-376.
86. Rahim, M. A., & Blum, A. A. (1994). Global perspectives on organizational conflict. Praeger.
87. Rahim, M. A., Magner, N. R., & Shapiro, D. L. (2000). Do justice perceptions influence styles of handling conflict with supervisors? What justice perceptions, precisely? International Journal of Conflict Management, 11(1), 9–31.
88. Rahim, M. A., Psenicka, C., Polychroniou, P., Zhao, J. H., Yu, C.-S., Chan, K. A., ... Ferdausy, S. (2002). A model of emotional intelligence and conflict management strategies: A study in seven countries. The International Journal of Organizational Analysis, 10(4), 302–326.
89. Ratzlaff, C., Matsumoto, D., Kouznetsova, N., Raroque, J., & Ray, R. (2000). Individual psychological culture and subjective wellbeing. In E. Diener & E. M. Suh (Eds.), Culture and subjective wellbeing (pp. 37–60). MIT Press.
90. Reuber, A. R., & Fischer, E. (1997). The influence of the management team’s international experience on the internationalization behaviors of SMEs. Journal of International Business Studies, 28(4), 807–825.
91. Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9(3), 185–211.
92. Schlaerth, A., Ensari, N., & Christian, J. (2013). A meta-analytical review of the relationship between emotional intelligence and leaders’ constructive conflict management. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 16(1), 126–136.
93. Scott, G., Ciarrochi, J., & Deane, F. P. (2004). Disadvantages of being an individualist in an individualistic culture: Idiocentrism, emotional competence, stress, and mental health. Australian Psychologist, 39(2), 143–154.
94. Shavitt, S., & Cho, H. (2016). Culture and consumer behavior: The role of horizontal and vertical cultural factors. Current Opinion in Psychology, 8, 149–154.
95. Shih, H. A., & Susanto, E. (2010). Conflict management styles, emotional intelligence, and job performance in public organizations. International Journal of Conflict Management, 21(2), 147–168.
96. Singelis, T. M., Triandis, H. C., Bhawuk, D. P., & Gelfand, M. J. (1995). Horizontal and vertical dimensions of individualism and collectivism: A theoretical and measurement refinement. Cross-Cultural Research, 29(3), 240–275.
97. Singh, K. (2010). Developing human capital by linking emotional intelligence with personal competencies in Indian business organizations. International Journal of Business Science and Applied Management, 2, 29–42.
98. Singh, S. (2007). Role of emotional intelligence in organizational learning: An empirical study. Singapore Management Review, 29(2), 55–74.
99. Song, M., Dyer, B., & Thieme, R. J. (2006). Conflict management and innovation performance: An integrated contingency perspective. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 34(3), 341–356.
100. Sousa, C., Gonçalves, G., Santos, J., & Leitão, J. (2017). Organizational practices for the expatriates’ adjustment: A systematic review. Journal of Global Mobility, 5(3), 251–274.
101. Sweeney, B., & Carruthers, W. L. (1996). Conflict resolution: History, philosophy, theory, and educational applications. The School Counselor, 43(5), 326–344.
102. Templer, K. J., Tay, C., & Chandrasekar, N. A. (2006). Motivational cultural intelligence, realistic job preview, realistic living conditions preview, and cross-cultural adjustment. Group & Organization Management, 31(1), 154–173.
103. Thomas, K. W. (1992). Conflict and conflict management: Reflections and update. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13(3), 265–274.
104. Ting-Toomey, S., Gao, G., Trubisky, P., Yang, Z., Soo Kim, H., Lin, S. L., & Nishida, T. (1991). Culture, face maintenance, and styles of handling interpersonal conflict: A study in five cultures. International Journal of Conflict Management, 2(4), 275–296.
105. Triandis, H. C. (1994). Theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of collectivism and individualism. Cross Cultural Research and Methodology Series-Age, 18(1), 41–41.
106. Triandis, H. C. (1996). The psychological measurement of cultural syndromes. American Psychologist, 51(4), 407–415.
107. Triandis, H. C. (1999). Cross‐cultural psychology. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 2(1), 127–143.
108. Triandis, H. C., & Gelfand, M. J. (1998). Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 118–128.
109. Tung, R. L. (1998). American expatriates abroad: From neophytes to cosmopolitans. Journal of World Business, 33(2), 125-144.
110. Vargas, J. H., & Kemmelmeier, M. (2013). Ethnicity and contemporary American culture: A meta-analytic investigation of horizontal–vertical individualism–collectivism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(2), 195–222.
111. Wang, C. L., Lin, X., Chan, A. K., & Shi, Y. (2005). Conflict handling styles in international joint ventures: A cross-cultural and cross-national comparison. MIR: Management International Review, 45(1), 3–21.
112. Wong, C. S., & Law, K. S. (2002). The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on performance and attitude: An exploratory study. The Leadership Quarterly, 13(3), 243–274.
113. Yavas, U., & Bodur, M. (1999). Satisfaction among expatriate managers: Correlates and consequences. Career Development International, 4(5), 261–269.
114. Yu, C., Sardessai, R. M., Lu, J., & Zhao, J. (2006). Relationship of emotional intelligence with conflict management styles: An empirical study in China. International Journal of Management and Enterprise Development, 3(1/2), 19–29.
115. Zhang, S. J., Chen, Y. Q., & Sun, H. (2015). Emotional intelligence, conflict management styles, and innovation performance: An empirical study of Chinese employees. International Journal of Conflict Management, 26(4), 450–478.