Socio-spatiality of global migration: Transnational spaces / translocal places, communities and identities

Öz

While researchers used to consider migration as the process of leaving the countries and adaptation into a new society/culture by the individuals for certain generations, migrants were seen as people who left their homelands and encountered a tough process during the incorporation into a different society/culture. However, migration has been described as the mobility with a broader scope that associates both immigrant-sending countries and immigrant receiving countries and the migrants with people, institutions and processes in these two national areas in recent studies. Therefore new concepts such as transnationalism, transnational migration, transnational spaces, which question former conceptualizations of migration have been suggested by the researchers. The concepts of translocality and translocalism, which are used for strengthening this perspective and expanding it with new understandings have become the center of interest recently. This article aims to address transnational and translocal communities, identities, spaces/places that have created new social geographies within the context of transnationalism by combining some studies from sociology, anthropology, political science, psychology and human geography. The transnational as well as translocal and placial lenses from which it has expanded offer us the opportunity to evaluate migration as multiple places that go beyond places which send and receive by also considering immigrants together with non-immigrants and those migrating to other places. New perspectives to migration also make it possible to re-think about identity, belonging and democracy issues; to monitor historical continuity of processes and make methodological changes as well as to develop new methods. Researches show that transnational/translocal practices may support adaptation of immigrants and development of the region of origin. In this context, this article emphasizes that it is necessary to conduct new researches in order to discover current and possible connections between transnationalism/translocalism and integration, migration and development.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Global migration,transnationalism,transnational spaces,translocality,identity,migrationdevelopment relationship

Küresel Göçün Sosyo-Mekânsallığı: Ulusötesi Mekânlar / Yerelötesi Yerler, Topluluklar ve Kimlikler

Öz

Geçmişte araştırmacılar göçü, belirli nesiller için bireylerin memleketlerini terk etme ve yeni bir topluma/kültüre uyum sağlama süreci olarak ele alırken; göçmenleri, anavatanlarını geride bırakan ve başka bir topluma/kültüre sancılı bir katılım süreciyle karşı karşıya kalan kişiler olarak görmüştür. Ancak yakın zamanlarda yapılan araştırmalarda göç, hem göç-veren ve göç-alan ülkeleri, hem de göçmenlerin kendilerini, bu iki ulusal alandaki kişiler, kurumlar ve süreçler ile ilişkili hale getiren daha geniş kapsamlı bir hareketlilik olarak betimlenmektedir. Bu yüzden araştırmacılar tarafından eski göç kavramsallaştırmalarını sorgulayan ulusötesicilik, ulusötesi göç, ulusötesi mekânlar gibi yeni kavramlar önerilmiştir. Son yıllarda sözü edilen bakış açısını güçlendirmek ve yeni anlayışlarla genişletmek için kullanılan yerelötesilik veya yerelötesicilik kavramları da ilgi odağı haline gelmiştir. Bu yazı sosyoloji, antropoloji, siyaset bilimi, psikoloji ve beşeri coğrafyadan bazı çalışmaları birleştirerek ulusötesicilik bağlamında yeni sosyal coğrafyalar yaratan ulusötesi ve yerelötesi toplulukları, kimlikleri ve mekânları/yerleri ele almayı amaçlamaktadır. Ulusötesi ve onun genişletildiği yerelötesi ve yersel mercekler bize göçü, göçmenlerle birlikte göçmen olmayanları ve başka yerlere göç edenleri de hesaba katarak gönderen ve kabul eden yerler ötesinde çoklu yerler olarak değerlendirme fırsatı sunmaktadır. Göçle ilgili yeni bakış açıları, aynı zamanda kimlik, aidiyet ve demokrasi meselelerini yeniden düşünmeyi; süreçlerin tarihsel sürekliliğini izlemeyi ve metodolojik değişiklik yapmayı, yeni yöntemler geliştirmeyi de sağlamaktadır. Araştırmalar, ulusötesi/yerelötesi pratiklerin göçmenlerin gittikleri yere adaptasyonunu ve aynı zamanda köken bölgenin gelişimini destekleyebileceğini göstermektedir. Bu bağlamda makale, ulusötesicilik/yerelötesilik ile bütünleşme ve göç ile kalkınma arasındaki mevcut ve olası bağlantıları keşfetmek için yeni araştırmalar yapılması gerektiğini vurgulamaktadır. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Küresel göç,ulusötesicilik,ulusötesi mekânlar,yerelötesilik,kimlik,göç-gelişme ilişkisi

Kaynakça

1. Adamson F.B. (2002) “Mobilizing for the transformation of home: Politicized identities and transnational practices”, In N. Al-Ali & K. Koser (Eds.), New approaches to migration? Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home (pp.155-168). London: Routledge.
2. Aksoy, A., Robins, K. (1997) “Peripheral vision: Cultural industries and cultural identities in Turkey”, Environment and Planning A, 29(12), 1937-1952. DOI: 10.1068/a291937
3. Aksoy, A., Robins, K. (2000) “Thinking across spaces. Transnational television from Turkey”, European Journal of Cultural Studies, 3(3), 343-365. DOI: 10.1177/136754940000300305
4. Al-Ali, N. (2002) “Trans- or a-national? Bosnian refugees in the UK and the Netherlands”, In N. Al-Ali & K. Koser (Eds.), New approaches to migration? Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home (pp. 96-117). London: Routledge.
5. Al-Ali, N., Black, R., Koser, K. (2001) “The limits to 'transnationalism': Bosnian and Eritrean refugees in Europe as emerging transnational communities”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 24(4), 578-600. DOI: 10.1080/01419870120049798
6. Al-Ali, N., Koser, K. (Eds.) (2002) New Approaches to Migration? Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home, London: Routledge.
7. Amelina, A., Faist, T. (2008) “Turkish migrant associations in Germany: Between integration pressure and transnational Linkages”, Revue Européenne des Migrations Internationales, 24(2), 91-120.
8. Appadurai, A. (1995). “The production of locality”, In R. Fardon (Ed.), Counterworks: Managing the Diversity of Knowledge (pp.204-225). London: Routledge.

9. Appadurai, A. (1996) Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, Minneapolis-London: University of Minnesota Press.
10. Appleyard, R. T. (1962) “Determinants of return migration: A socioeconomic study of United Kingdom migrants who returned from Australia”, Economic Record, 9, 352-368.
11. Arango, J. (2000) “Explaining migration: A critical view”, International Social Science Journal, 52(165), 283-296. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2451.00259
12. Argun, B.E. (2003) Turkey in Germany: The Transnational Sphere of Deutschkei, New York and London: Routledge.
13. Basch, L., Glick Schiller, N., Szanton-Blanc C. (1994) Nations Unbound: Transnational Projects, Postcolonial Predicaments, and Deterritorialized Nation-States, Langhorne, PA: Gordon and Breach.
14. Battistella, G., Conaco , M. (1998) “The impact of labour migration on the children left behind: A study of elementary school children in the Philippines”, Sojourn: Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia,13(2), 220–241.
15. Bauböck, R. (2003) “Towards a political theory of migrant transnationalism”, International Migration Review, 37(3), 700-723. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00155.x
16. Bauböck R., Faist, T. (Eds.) (2010) Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods, Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
17. Bauman, Z. (2000) Liquid Modernity, Cambridge: Polity.
18. Bilgin, N. (2007) Kimlik İnşası, Ankara: Aşina Kitaplar
19. Bloemraad, I. (2005) “The Limits of de Tocqueville: How government facilitates organisational capacity in newcomer communities”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(5), 865-887. DOI: 10.1080/13691830500177578
20. Bourne, R.S. (1916) “Trans-national America”, The Atlantic Monthly July: 86–97.
21. Boyle, P. (2002) “Population geography: Transnational women on the move”, Progress in Human Geography, 26(4), 531–543. DOI: 10.1191/0309132502ph384pr
22. Bradatan, C., Popan, A., Melton, R.. (2010) “Transnationality as a fluid social identity”, Social Identities, 16(2),169-178.
23. Brickell, K., Datta, A. (2011) “Introduction: Translocal geographies”, In K. Brickell & A. Datta (Eds.), Translocal Geographies: Spaces, Places, Connections (pp. 3-20). Farnham: Ashgate.
24. Brinkerhoff, J.M. (2009) Digital Diasporas: Identity and Transnational Engagement, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
25. Bruneau, M. (2010) “Diasporas, transnational spaces and communities”, In R.Bauböck & T. Faist (Eds.), Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods (pp.35-49) Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
26. Casey, E. (2001) “Between geography and philosophy: What does it mean to be in the place-world?”, Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 91(4), 683-693. DOI: 10.1111/0004-5608.00266
27. Castells, M. (2008a) Enformasyon Çağı: Ekonomi, Toplum ve Kültür (Birinci Cilt): Ağ Toplumunun Yükselişi,(2.Baskı). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
28. Castells, M. (2008b) Enformasyon Çağı: Ekonomi, Toplum ve Kültür (İkinci Cilt): Kimliğin Gücü, (2.Baskı). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
29. Castells, M. (2013) Enformasyon Çağı: Ekonomi, Toplum ve Kültür (Üçüncü Cilt): Binyılın Sonu, (2.Baskı). İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
30. Castles, S. (2002) “Migration and community formation under conditions of globalization”, International Migration Review, 36(4), 1143-1168. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2002.tb00121.x
31. Castles, S. (2010) “Understanding global migration: A social transformation perspective”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 36(10), 1565-1586. DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.2010.489381
32. Castles, S., Miller, M.J. (2009) The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, (4th Revised edition). Basingstoke: Palgrave MacMillan.
33. Čiarnienė, R., Kumpikaitė, V. (2008) “The Impact of globalization on migration processes”, Socialiniai tyrimai / Social Research, 3(13), 42–48.
34. Cohen, R. (1996) “Diasporas and the nation-state: From victims to challengers”, International Affairs, 72(3),507-520.
35. Collyer, M., King, R. (2015) “Producing transnational space: International migration and the extra-territorial reach of state power”, Progress in Human Geography, 39(2), 185-204. DOI: 10.1177/0309132514521479
36. Cresswell, T. (2009) “Place”, In R. Kitchin & N.J. Thrift (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (pp.169-177). Amsterdam-Oxford: Elsevier Science.
37. Crivello, G. (2003) Dreams of Passage: Negotiating Gender, Status and Migration in the Moroccan Rif. PhD Thesis, University of California, Riverside. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/35711880_Dreams_of_passage_negotiating_gender_status_and_migration_in_the_Moroccan_Rif
38. Czaika M., de Haas, H. (2015) “The Globalization of migration: The world become more migratory?”, International Migration Review, 48(2) 283–323. DOI: 10.1111/imre.12095
39. Çağlar, A. (1995) “German Turks in Berlin: Social exclusion and strategies for social mobility”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 21(3), 309-323. DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.1995.9976494
40. Çağlar, A. (2000) “ ‘Tire’li kimlikler: Teori ve yönteme ilişkin bazı arayışlar”, Toplum ve Bilim, 84, 129-150.
41. Çağlar, A.S. (2001) “Constraining metaphors and the transnationalisation of spaces in Berlin”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 27(4), 601-613. DOI: 10.1080/13691830120090403
42. Çağlar, A. (2006) “Hometown associations, the rescaling of state spatiality and migrant grassroots transnationalism”, Global Networks, 6(1), 1-22. DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0374.2006.00130.x
43. Dahinden, J. (2009) “Are we all transnationals now? Network transnationalism and transnational subjectivity: The differing impacts of globalization on the inhabitants of a small Swiss city”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 32(8), 1365-1386. DOI: 10.1080/01419870802506534
44. Dahinden, J., Riaňo, Y., Tadorian, M. (2012) “Bridging places across borders: Constitution, maintenance and meaning of transnaional social spaces”, Université de Neuchâtel, Faculté des lettres et sciences humaines, Laboratoire d'études des processus sociaux. https://www.unine.ch/maps-haire/bridging_places_1
45. Dahlman, C. (2004) “Diaspora”, In J.Duncan, N.Johnson & R.Schein (Eds.), A Companion to Cultural Geography (pp.485-498). Oxford: Blackwell.
46. de Haas, H. (2010) “Migration and development: A theoretical perspective”, International Migration Review, 44(1), 227-264. DOI:10.1111/j.1747-7379.2009.00804.x
47. de Haas, H. (2009) Mobility and Human Development, (Human Development Research Paper 2009/01). New York: UNDP. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdrp_2009_01_rev.pdf
48. Deniz, A., Özgür, E.M. (2010) “Rusya’dan Türkiye’ye ulus aşırı göç: Antalya’daki Rus göçmenler”, Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, 19(1), 13-30.
49. Deniz, A., Özgür, E. M. (2013) “Antalya’daki Rus gelinler: Göçten evliliğe, evlilikten göçe”, Sosyoloji Dergisi, 27(2), 151-175. Ehrkamp P. (2005) “Placing identities: Transnational practices and local attachments of Turkish immigrants in Germany”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(2), 345-364. DOI: 10.1080/1369183042000339963
50. Elden, S. (2009) “Space I”, In R. Kitchin & N. J. Thrift (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, Vol. 10 (pp. 262-267). Oxford, UK: Elsevier.
51. Ellemers, N., Spears, R., Doosje, B. (2002) “Self and social identity”, Annual Review of Psychology, 53, 161-186. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.psych.53.100901.135228
52. Ellis, P., Khan, Z. (2002) “The Kashmiri diaspora: Influences in Kashmir”, In N. Al-Ali & K.Koser (Eds.), New Approaches to Migration?: Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home (pp.169-185). London: Routledge.
53. Espiritu, Y.L, Tran, T. (2002) “Viêt Nam, Nu’óc Tôi (Vietnam, My Country): Vietnamese Americans and transnationalism”, In P. Levitt & M.C. Waters (Eds.), The Changing Face of Home: The Transnational Lives of the Second Generation (pp. 367–398). New York: Russell Sage Found.
54. Faist, T. (1998) “Transnational social spaces out of international migration: Evolution, significance, and future prospects”, Archives Européennes de Sociologie, 39(2), 213-247.
55. Faist, T. (1999) “Developing transnational social spaces: the Turkish–German example”, In L.Pries (Ed.), Migration and Transnational Social Spaces (pp. 39-69). Aldershot: Ashgate
56. Faist, T. (2000a) The Volume and Dynamics of International Migration and Transnational Social Spaces, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
57. Faist, T. (2000b) “Transnationalization in international migration: Implications for the study of citizenship and culture”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23(2), 189-222. DOI: 10.1080/014198700329024
58. Faist T. (2004a) “The transnational turn in migration research: Perspectives for the study of politics and polity”, In M.P. Frykman (Ed.), Transnational Spaces: Disciplinary Perspectives (pp.11-45). Malmö: Malmö University.
59. Faist, T. (2004b) “The border-crossing expansion of social space: Concepts, questions and topics”, In Transnational Social Spaces: Agents, Networks and Institutions (pp.1-34). Aldershot: Ashgate.
60. Faist, T. (2008) “Migrants as transnational development agents: An inquiry into the newest round of the migration-development nexus”, Population, Space and Place, 14(1), 21-42. DOI: 10.1002/psp.471
61. Faist, T. (2009a) “The transnational social question: Social rights and citizenship in a global context”, International Sociology, 24(1), 7-35. DOI: 10.1177/0268580908099153
62. Faist, T. (2009b) “Transnationalization and development: Towards an alternative agenda”, Social Analysis, 53(3), 38-59. DOI: 10.3167/sa.2009.530303
63. Faist, T (2010) “Diaspora and transnationalism: What kind of dance partners?”, In R.Bauböck & T.Faist (Eds.), Diaspora and Transnationalism: Concepts, Theories and Methods (pp.9-34). Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.
64. Faist, T., Özveren, E. (Eds.) (2004) Transnational Social Spaces: Agents, Networks and Institutions. Aldershot: Ashgate.
65. Fargues, P. (1997) “State policies and the birth rate in Egypt: From socialism to liberalism”, Population and Development Review, 23(1), 115-138.
66. Foner, N. (1997) “What's new about transnationalism? New York immigrants today and at the turn of the century”, Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies, 6(3), 355-375.
67. Freitag, U., von Oppen, A. (2010) “Introduction. ‘Translocality’: An approach to connection and transfer in area studies, In U. Freitag & A. von Oppen (Eds.), Translocality: The Study of Globalising Processes from a Southern Perspective (pp. 1-21). Leiden: Brill.
68. Gammage, S. (2004) “Exercising exit, voice and loyalty: A gender perspective on transnationalism in Haiti”, Development and Change 35(4),743-771. DOI: 10.1111/j.0012-155X.2004.00378.x
69. Giddens, A. (1984) The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration, Cambridge: Polity Press.
70. Gielis, R. (2009) “A global sense of migrant places: Towards a place perspective in the study of migrant transnationalism”, Global Networks, 9(2), 271-287. DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0374.2009.00254.x
71. Glazer, N., Moynihan, D.P. (1963) Beyond the melting pot: The Negroes, Puerto Ricans, Jews, Italians, and Irish of New York City, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
72. Glick-Schiller, N. (2005) “Transnational social fields and imperialism: Bringing a theory of power to transnational studies”, Anthropological Theory, 5(4), 439-461. DOI: 10.1177/1463499605059231
73. Glick-Schiller, N., Çağlar, A. (2009) “Towards a comparative theory of locality in migration studies: Migrant incorporation and city scale”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 35(2), 177-202. DOI: 10.1080/13691830802586179
74. Glick-Schiller, N., Fouron, G. (1999) “Terrains of blood and nation: Haitian transnational social fields”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22( 2), 340–366. DOI: 10.1080/014198799329512
75. Glick-Schiller N., Basch L., Blanc-Szanton, C. (1995) “From immigrant to transmigrant: Theorizing transnational migration”, Anthropological Quarterly, 68(1), 48-63.
76. Glick-Schiller, N., Basch, L., Blanc-Szanton, C. (Eds.) (1992a) Towards a Transnational Perspective on Migration: Race, Class, Ethnicity, and Nationalism Reconsidered. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 645, vii–xv, 1–258.
77. Glick-Schiller, N., Basch, L., Blanc-Szanton, C. (1992b) “Transnationalism: A new analytic framework for understanding migration”, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 645, 1-24.
78. Gmelch, G. (1980) “Return migration”, Annual Review of Anthropology, 9,135-159.
79. Gore, C. (2000) “The rise and fall of the Washington Consensus as a paradigm for developing countries”, World Development, 28(5), 789-804. DOI: 10.1016/S0305-750X(99)00160-6
80. Gould, C.C. (2009) “Structuring global democracy: Political communities, universal human rights, and transnational representation”, Metaphilosophy, 40(1), 24–41. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9973.2009.01568.x
81. Graham, B. (2014) “Diaspora-owned firms and social responsibility”, Review of International Political Economy, 21(2), 432-466. DOI: 10.1080/09692290.2012.747103
82. Graham, E., Jordan, L.P., Yeoh, B.S.A., Lam, T., Asis, M., Su-kamdi (2012) “Transnational families and the family nexus: Perspectives of Indonesian and Filipino children left behind by migrant parent(s)”, Environment and Planning A, 44(4), 793-815. DOI: 10.1068/a4445.
83. Greiner C., Sakdapolrak, P. (2013a) “Translocality: Concepts, applications and emerging research perspectives”, Geography Compass, 7(5), 373-384. DOI: 10.1111/gec3.12048
84. Greiner C., Sakdapolrak P. (2013b) “Rural–urban migration, agrarian change, and the environment in Kenya: A critical review of the literatüre”, Population and Environment, 34(4), 524-553. DOI: 10.1007/s11111-012-0178-0
85. Grillo, R., Riccio, B. (2004) “Translocal development: Italy–Senegal”, Population, Space and Place, 10(2), 99- 111. DOI: 10.1002/psp.321
86. Guarnizo L.E. (1997) “The emergence of a transnational social formation and the mirage of return migration among Dominican transmigrants”, Identities, 4(2), 281-322. DOI: 10.1080/1070289X.1997.9962591
87. Guarnizo, L.E. (2003) “The economics of transnational living”, International Migration Review, 37(3), 666-699. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00154.x
88. Guarnizo, L.E., Diaz, L.M. (1999) “Transnational migration: A view from Colombia”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22( 2), 397-421. DOI: 10.1080/014198799329530
89. Guarnizo, L. E., Smith, M. P. (1998) “The locations of transnationalism”, In M.P. Smith & L.E. Guarnizo (Eds.), Transnationalism from Below (pp. 3–34). New Brunswick, London: Transaction.
90. Hannerz, U. (1996) Transnational Connections: Culture, People, Places, London: Routledge.
91. Harvey, D. (2006) “Space as a keyword”, In N.Castree & D.Gregory (Eds.), David Harvey: A Critical Reader (pp.270-293). Malden, USA: Blackwell Publishing.
92. Harvey, D. (2009) Cosmopolitanism and the Geographies of Freedom, New York: Columbia University Press.
93. Heisler, M.O. (2001) “Now and then, here and there: Migration and the transformation of identities, borders, and orders”, In. M. Albert, D. Jacobson & Y. Lapid (Eds.). Identities, Borders, Orders (pp.225-248). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
94. Held D., McGrew A., Goldblatt D., Perraton J. (2000) “Global transformations: Politics, economics and culture”, In C.Pierson & S.Tormey (Eds.), Politics at the Edge (pp.14-28). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
95. Hoerder, D. (2013) “Translocalism”, In I. Ness (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration (pp.1-4). Wiley-Blackwell. DOI: 10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm540
96. Hondagneu-Sotelo, P., Avila E. (1997) “'I'm here, but I'm there': The meanings of Latina transnational motherhood”, Gender and Society, 11(5), 548-571. DOI: 10.1177/089124397011005003
97. Huang, Y. (2011) “Identity negotiation in relation to context of communication”, Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1(3), 219-225. DOI: 10.4304/tpls.1.3.219-225
98. International Migration Institute-IMI (2006) Towards a New Agenda for International Migration Research, University of Oxford, Working Paper. https://www.imi.ox.ac.uk/files/news/imi-research-agenda.pdf
99. Itzigsohn, J. (2000) “Immigration and the boundaries of citizenship: The institutions of immigrants' political transnationalism”, The International Migration Review, 34(4), 1126-1154. DOI: 10.2307/2675977
100. Itzigsohn, J., Saucedo S.G. (2002) “Immigrant incorporation and socioculturul transnationalism”, International Migration Review, 36(3), 766-798. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2002.tb00104.x
101. Itzigsohn, J., Villacrés, D. (2008) “Migrant political transnationalism and the practice of democracy: Dominican external voting rights and Salvadoran home town associations”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(4), 792-811. DOI: 10.1080/01419870701784497
102. Itzigsohn, J., Dore Cabral, C., Hernandez, M.E., Vasquez, O. (1999) “Mapping Dominican transnationalism: narrow and broad transnational practices”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2), 316-339. DOI:10.1080/014198799329503
103. Jacobs, D., Phalet, K., Swyngedouw, M. (2006) “Political participation and associational life of Turkish residents in the Capital of Europe”, Turkish Studies, 7(1), 145-161. DOI: 10.1080/14683840500520659
104. Jenkins, R. (1996) Social Identity, London: Routledge.
105. Jørgensen, M.B. (2009) National and Transnational Identities: Turkish Identity in Denmark, Sweden and Germany, Aalborg University: Institut for Historie (Spirit PhD Series; No. 19).
106. Kalaycıoğlu, S., Çelik, K., Beşpınar, F.U. (2010) “‘Gitmek mi zor kalmak mı?’: Avrupa’ya erkek göçü ve geride kalan kadının gözünden göç deneyimi”, Hacettepe Universitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 27(1), 123-146.
107. Kang, Y. (2012) “Transnational motherhood in the making of global kids: South Korean educational migrants in Singapore”, In C.Plüss  K.Chan (Eds.), Living Intersections: Transnational Migrant Identifications in Asia, Vol 2. (pp.149-166). Dordrecht: Springer.
108. Karaduman, S. (2010) “Modernizmden postmodernizme kimliğin yapısal dönüşümü”, Journal of Yaşar University 17, 2886‐2899.
109. Kastoryano, R. (2006) “Le nationalisme transnational turc ou la redéfinition du nationalisme par les Turcs de l’extérieur”, In A.Dieckhoff et R.Kastoryano (Eds.), Nationalismes en Mutation en Méditerranée Orientale (p. 249-266). Paris: CNRS. http://books.openedition.org/editionscnrs/2410
110. Kaya, A. (2004) “Euro-Turks: A bridge, or a breach, between Turkey and the European Union?”, In CEPS Turkey in Europe Monitor, 5 (May), 37-46.
111. Kaya, A., Kentel, F. (2005) Euro-Turks: A Bridge or a Breach Between Turkey and the European Union?Brussels: Centre for European Policy Studies.
112. Kaya, İ. (2005) “Identity and space: The case of Turkish Americans”, Geographical Review, 95(3), 425-440.
113. Kaya, İ. (2007) Müslüman Amerikalılar: Göç, Kimlik ve Entegrasyon, İstanbul: Dipnot.
114. Kearney, M. (1995) “The local and the global: The anthropology of globalization and transnationalism”, Annual Review of Anthropology, 24, 547-565.
115. Kennedy, P., Roudometof, V. (2002) “Transnationalism in a global age”, In P.Kennedy & V.Roudometof (Eds.), Communities Across Borders: New Immigrants and Transnational Cultures (pp.1-26). London-New York: Routledge.
116. Kivisto, P. (2001) “Theorizing transnational immigration: A critical review of current efforts”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 24(4), 549–577. DOI: 10.1080/01419870120049789
117. Koser, K. (2007) “Refugees, transnationalism and the state”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 33(2), 233-254. DOI: 10.1080/13691830601154195
118. Kritz, M.M., Zlotnik, H. (1992) “Global interactions: Migration systems, processes, and policies”, In M.M. Kritz, L.L.Lim & H.Zlotnik (Eds.), International Migration Systems: A Global Approach (pp. 1-16). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
119. Levitt, P. (2001) The Transnational Villagers, Berkeley: University of California Press.
120. Levitt, P., Lamba-Nieves, D. (2011) “Social remittances revisited”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 37(1), 1-22. DOI: 10.1080/1369183X.2011.521361
121. Levitt, P., Glick-Schiller, N. (2004) “Conceptualizing simultaneity: A transnational social field perspective on society”, International Migration Review, 38(3), 1002-1039. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00227.x
122. Levitt, P., Jaworsky, B.N. (2007) “Transnational migration studies: Past developments and future trends”, Annual Review of Sociology, 33, 129-156. DOI: 10.1146/annurcvjoc33.040406.131816
123. Levitt, P., Waters, M. (Eds.) (2006) The Changing Face of Home: The Transnational Lives of the Second Generation, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
124. Levitt, P., DeWind, J., Vertovec, S. (2003) “International perspectives on transnational migration: An introduction”, International Migration Review, 37(3), 565-575. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747- 7379.2003.tb00150.x
125. Lewicka, M. (2008) “Place attachment, place identity, and place memory: Restoring the forgotten city past”, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 28(3), 209-231. DOI:10.1016/j.jenvp.2008.02.001
126. Ley, D. (2004) “Transnational spaces and everyday lives”, Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers, 29(2), 151-164. DOI: 10.1111/j.0020-2754.2004.00122.x
127. Li, P.S. (2008) “World migration in the age of globalization: Policy implications and challenges”, New Zealand Population Review, 33/34, 1-22.
128. Ma, E.K. (2002) “Translocal spatiality”, International Journal of Cultural Studies, 5(2), 131-152. DOI: 10.1177/1367877902005002568
129. Madianou, M. (2012) “Migration and the accentuated ambivalence of motherhood: the role of ICTs in Filipino transnational families”, Global Networks, 12(3), 277-295. DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0374.2012.00352.x
130. Madianou, M., Miller, D. (2011) “Mobile phone parenting: Reconfiguring relationships between Filipina migrant mothers and their left-behind children”, New Media & Society, 13(3) 457-470. DOI: 10.1177/1461444810393903
131. Markley, E. (2011) “Social remittances and social capital: Values and practices of transnational social space”, Quality of Life, 22(4), 365-378.
132. Marquardt, M.F. (2005) “From shame to confidence: Gender, religious conversion, and civic engagement of Mexicans in the U.S. South”, Latin American Perspectives, 32(1), 27-56. DOI: 10.1177/0094582X04271850
133. Massey, D. (1994) Space, Place and Gender, Cambridge: Polity.
134. Massey, D.S., Alarcón, R., Durand , J., González, H. (1987) Return to Aztlan: The Social Process of International Migration from Western Mexico, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
135. Massey, D.S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., Taylor, J. (1998) Worlds in Motion: Understanding International Migration at the End of the Millennium, Oxford: Clarendon Press.
136. Mazzucato, V. (2008) “The double engagement: Transnationalism and integration. Ghanaian migrants’ lives between Ghana and The Netherlands”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 34(2), 199-216. DOI: 10.1080/13691830701823871
137. Mazzucato, V. (2009) “Informal insurance arrangements in Ghanaian migrants’ transnational networks: The role of reverse remittances and geographic proximity”, World Development, 37(6), 1105-1115. DOI: 10.1016/j.worlddev.2008.11.001
138. McDowell, L., Keith, M., Kitson, M. (2012) “Shifting contours of migration”, Cambridge Journal of Regions, Economy and Society, 5(2), 183–187. DOI: 10.1093/cjres/rss009
139. McEwan, C. (2004) “Transnationalism”, In J.S. Duncan, N.C. Johnson & R.H. Schein (Eds.), A Companion to Cultural Geography (pp.499-512). Malden-Oxford-Carlton: Blackwell.
140. McEwan, C., Pollard, J., Henry, N. (2005) “The 'global' in the city economy: Multicultural economic development in Birmingham”, International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 29(4), 916-933. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2427.2005.00628.x
141. Morawska, E. (2003) “Disciplinary agenda and analytic strategies of research on immigrant transnationalism”, International Migration Review, 37(3), 611-640. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00152.x
142. Mohamoud, A.A., Fréchaut, M. (2006) Social remittances of the African Diasporas in Europe, North–South Centre of the Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/168070ac75
143. OECD (2016) Perspectives on Global Development 2017: International Migration in a Shifting World, Paris: OECD Development Centre. http://www.oecd.org/dev/perspectives-on-global-development22224475.htm
144. Olwig, K. F. (1997) “Cultural sites: Sustaining a home in a deterritorialized World”, In K.F. Olwig & K. Hastrup, (Eds.), Siting Culture the Shifting Anthropological Object (pp. 17-38). London: Routledge.
145. Ong, A., Nonini, D., Godley, M.R. (Eds.) (1997) Ungrounded Empires: The Cultural Politics of Modern Chinese Transnationalism, New York: Routledge
146. Orozco, M. (2005) “Transnationalism and development: Trends and opportunities in Latin America”, In S.M. Maimbo & D.Ratha (Eds.), Remittances: Development Impact and Future Prospects (pp. 307-330). Washington, DC: World Bank.
147. Østergaard-Nielsen, E.K. (2001) “Transnational political practices and the receiving state: Turks and Kurds in Germany and the Netherlands”, Global Networks, 1(3), 261-281. DOI: 10.1111/1471-0374.00016
148. Østergaard-Nielsen, E.K. (2002) “Working for a solution through Europe: Kurdish political lobbying in Germany”, In N.Al-Ali & K.Koser (Eds.). New Approaches to Migration?: Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home (pp.186-201). London: Routledge.
149. Østergaard-Nielsen, E. (2003a) “The politics of migrants’ transnational political practices”, International Migration Review, 37(3), 760-786. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00157.x
150. Østergaard-Nielsen, E.K. (2003b) Transnational Politics: Turks and Kurds in Germany, London: Routledge.
151. Özgür, E.M., Yüceşahin, M.M., Hasta, D., Yavuz, S. (2015) Rusya ve Azerbaycan'dan Türkiye’ye Göç ve Antalya'da Ulusaşırı Toplumsal Alan Oluşumu, Ankara: TÜBİTAK-SOBAG 1001 112K480 Nolu Proje.
152. Özkul, D. (2012a) “Transnational migration Research”, Sociopedia.isa. DOI: 10.1177/2056846012111 http://www.sagepub.net/isa/resources/pdf/TransnationalMigrationResearch.pdf
153. Özkul, D. (2012b) “Ulus-ötesi göç: Uluslararası göç yazınında yeni bir paradigma”, S.G. Ihlamur-Öner, N.S. Şirin-Öner (Eds.), Küreselleşme Çağında Göç: Kavramlar Tartışmalar içinde (s.483-500). İstanbul: İletişim.
154. Parreňas, R.S. (2005) “Long distance intimacy: Class, gender and intergenerational relations between mothers and children in Filipino transnational families”, Global Networks, 5(4), 317-336. DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0374.2005.00122.x
155. Parreñas, R.S. (2010) “Transnational mothering: A source of gender conflicts in the family”, North Carolina Law Review, 88(5),1825–1856.
156. Pitkänen, P. (2012) “Introduction”, In P.Pitkänen, A.Içduygu, & D.Sert (Eds.). Migration and Transformation Multi-Level Analysis of Migrant Transnationalism (pp.1-11). Dordrecht (Netherland): Springer.
157. Pitkänen, P., Içduygu, A., Sert D. (2012) “Current characteristics of migrant transnationalism”, In P.Pitkänen, A.Içduygu, & D.Sert (Eds.). Migration and Transformation Multi-Level Analysis of Migrant Transnationalism (pp.207-224). Dordrecht (Netherland): Springer.
158. Portes, A. (1997) “Immigration theory for a new century: Some problems and opportunities”, International Migration Review, 31(4), 799-825.
159. Portes, A., (1999) “Conclusion: Towards a new world - the origins and effects of transnational activities”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2),463-477. DOI: 10.1080/014198799329567
160. Portes A. (2001) “Introduction: The debates and significance of immigrant transnationalism”, Global Networks, 1(3), 181-194. DOI: 10.1111/1471-0374.00012
161. Portes, A. (2003) “Conclusion: Theoretical convergencies and empirical evidence in the study of immigrant transnationalism”, International Migration Review, 37(3), 874-892. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747- 7379.2003.tb00161.x
162. Portes, A., Sensenbrenner, J. (1993) “Embeddedness and immigration: Notes on the social determinants of economic action”, American Journal of Sociology, 98(6), 1320-1350. DOI: 10.1086/230191
163. Portes, A., Guarnizo, L.E., Landolt, P. (1999) “The study of transnationalism: Pitfalls and promises of an emergent research field”, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2), 217-237. DOI: 10.1080/014198799329468
164. Portes, A., Guarnizo, L.E., Haller, W.J. (2002) “Transnational entrepreneurs: An alternative form of immigrant economic adaptation”, American Sociological Review, 67(2), 278-298.
165. Portes, A., Escobar, C., Walton Radford, A. (2007) “Immigrant transnational organizations and development: A comparative study”, International Migration Review, 41(1), 242-281. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2007.00063.x
166. Pries, L. (Ed.) (1999) Migration and Transnational Social Spaces, Aldershot: Ashgate.
167. Pries, L. (Ed.) (2001) New Transnational Social Spaces: International Migration and Transnational Companies in the Early Twenty-first Century, London-New York: Routledge.
168. Pries, L. (2005) “Configurations of geographic and societal spaces: A sociological proposal between 'methodological nationalism' and the 'spaces of flows'”, Global Networks, 5(2), 167-190. DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0374.2005.00113.x
169. Ravenstein, E. G. (1885) “The Laws of migration (Part I)”, Journal of the Statistical Society of London, 48(2),167-235.
170. Ravenstein, E. G. (1889) “The Laws of migration (Part II)”, Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, 52(2), 241-301.
171. Rouse, R. (1991) “Mexican migration and the social space of postmodernism”, Diaspora, 1(1), 8-23. DOI:10.1353/dsp.1991.0011
172. Safran, W. (1991) “Diasporas in modern societies: Myths of homeland and return”, Diaspora, 1(1), 83-99. DOI:10.1353/dsp.1991.0004
173. Salt, J. (1992) “The future of international labor migration”, International Migration Review, 26(4), 1077-1111. DOI: 10.2307/2546876
174. Sana, M., Massey, D.S. (2005) “Household composition, family migration, and community context: Migrant remittances in four countries”, Social Science Quarterly, 86(2), 509-528. DOI: 10.1111/j.0038- 4941.2005.00315.x
175. Sardinha, J. (2009) Immigrant Associations, Integration and Identity: Angolan, Brazilian and Eastern European Communities in Portugal, International Migration, Integration and Social Cohesion-IMISCOE Dissertations, Amsterdam University Press.
176. Schain, M.A. (1999) “Minorities and immigrant incorporation in France: The state and the dynamics of multiculturalism”, in C. Joppke and S. Lukes (Eds.), Multicultural Questions, (pp.199-223). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
177. Schrover, M., Vermeulen, F. (2005) “Immigrant organisations”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(5), 823-832. DOI: 10.1080/13691830500177792
178. Sert, D. (2012) “Integration and/or transnationalism? The case of Turkish-German transnational space”, Perceptions, 17(2), 85-102.
179. Sezgin, Z. (2011) “Turkish migrants’ organizations in Germany and their role in the flow of remittances to Turkey”, Journal of International Migration & Integration, 12(3), 231-251. DOI: 10.1007/s12134- 010-0157-1
180. Sisk, T.D. (2017) Migration, Multiculturalism and Democracy: A Resource Guide, Strömsborg, Sweden: International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance.
181. Skrbiš, Z. (1999) Long-Distance Nationalism, Aldershot: Ashgate.
182. Smith, A.D. (1991) National Identity, London: Penguin.
183. Smith, M.P. (2001) Transnational Urbanism: Locating Globalization, Malden, MA: Blackwell.
184. Smith M.P. (2005) “Transnational urbanism revisited”, Journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(2), 235-244. DOI: 10.1080/1369183042000339909
185. Smith, M.P., Guarnizo, L.E. (Eds.) (1998) Transnationalism from Below, New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction.
186. Smith, R.C. (2006) Mexican New York: Transnational Lives of New Immigrants, Berkeley: University of California Press.
187. Soja, E.W. (1989) Postmodern Geographies: The Reassertion of Space in Critical Social Theory, London and New York: Verso.
188. Stiglitz, J. (2002) Globalisation and its Discontents, New York-London: W.W. Norton and Company.
189. Suurenbroek, F., Schrover, M. (2005) “A separate language, a separate identity? Organisations of Frisian migrants in Amsterdam in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(5), 991-1005. DOI: 10.1080/13691830500177826
190. Şahin-Kütük, B. (2017) “Hollanda’ya gerçekleştirilen Türk göçü ve ulusötesi faaliyetler”, Sosyoloji Konferansları, 55 (2017-1), 85-106.
191. Şenay, B. (2010) “Ulusaşırı toplumsal alanlar, ulusaşırı kimlikler: Avustralyalı Türkler örneği”, R.O.Dönmez, P.Enneli ve N. Altuntaş (Eds.), Türkiye’de Kesişen ve Çatışan Dinsel ve Etnik Kimlikler içinde (s.255-287). İstanbul: Say.
192. Şenyürekli, A.R., Detzner, D.F. (2008) “Intergenerational relationships in a transnational context: The case of Turkish families”, Family Relations, 57(4), 457-467. DOI: 10.1111/j.1741-3729.2008.00514.x
193. Şimşek, D. (2012) Identity Formation of Cypriot Turkish, Kurdish and Turkish Young People in London in a Transnational Context, (Unpublished Doctoral Thesis). City University of London.
194. Tajfel, H., Turner, J.C. (1986) “The social identity theory of intergroup behavior”, in S. Worchel & W.G. Austin (Eds.), The Psychology of Intergroup Relations (pp. 7-24). Chicago: Nelson-Hall.
195. Taylor, M.J., Moran-Taylor, M.J., Ruiz, D.R. (2006) “Land, ethnic, and gender change: Transnational migration and its effects on Guatemalan lives and landscapes”, Geoforum, 37, 41-61. DOI: 10.1016/j.geoforum.2004.12.002
196. Thomas, W.I., Znaniecki, F. (1918-1920) “The Polish peasant in Europe and America: Monograph of an immigrant group”, (5 Vols). New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
197. Timmerman C., Wets, J. (2011) “Marriage migration and the labour market: The case of migrants of Turkish descent in Belgium”, Nordic Journal of Migration Research, 1(2), 69-79. DOI: 10.2478/v10202-011-0009-x
198. Twigger-Ross, C.L., Uzzell, D. (1996) “Place and identity processes”, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 16(5), 205-220. DOI: org/10.1006/jevp.1996.0017
199. Uysal, A. (2014) Londra’da Türk Varlığı: Mekân ve Aidiyet, (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi). İstanbul Üniversitesi / Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
200. van Hear, N. (2002) “Sustaining societies under strain: Remittances as a form of transnational exchange in Sri Lanka and Ghana”, In N.Al-Ali & K.Koser (Eds.). New Approaches to Migration? Transnational Communities and the Transformation of Home (pp. 201-223). London: Routledge.
201. Vermeulen, F. (2005) “Organisational patterns: Surinamese and Turkish associations in Amsterdam, 1960–1990”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(5), 951-973. DOI: 10.1080/13691830500177859
202. Vertovec, S. (1999) “Conceiving and researching transnationalism”, Journal of Ethnic and Racial Studies, 22(2),447-462. DOI: 10.1080/014198799329558
203. Vertovec, S. (2001) “Transnationalism and identity”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 27(4), 573–582.
204. Vertovec, S. (2003) “Migration and other modes of transnationalism: Towards conceptual cross-fertilization”, The International Migration Review, 37(3), 641-665.
205. Vertovec, S. (2004) “Migrant transnationalism and modes of transformation”, International Migration Review, 38(3), 970-1001. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00226.x
206. Vertovec, S. (2007) “Super-diversity and its implications”, Ethnic and Racial Studies 30(6), 1024-1054. DOI:10.1080/01419870701599465
207. Vertovec, S. (2009) Transnationalism, London: Routledge.
208. Vertovec, S., Cohen, R. (1999) “Introduction”, In S.Vertovec & R.Cohen (Eds.), Migration, Diasporas and Transnationalism (pp. xiii-xxviii). Aldershot: Edward Elgar.
209. Virkama A., Therrien, C., Harrami, N., Kadri, A. (2012) “Franco–Moroccan transnational space: Continuity and transformations”, In P.Pitkänen, A.Içduygu, & D.Sert (Eds.), Migration and Transformation Multi-Level Analysis of Migrant Transnationalism (pp.62-100). Dordrecht (Netherland): Springer.
210. Voigt-Graf, C. (2004) “Towards a geography of transnational spaces: Indian transnational communities in Australia”, Global Networks, 4(1), 25–49. DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-0374.2004.00079.x
211. Voigt-Graf, C. (2005) “The construction of transnational spaces by Indian migrants in Australia”, Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(2), 365-384. DOI: 10.1080/1369183042000339972
212. Wahlbeck, Ö. (1999) Kurdish Diasporas: A Comparative Study of Kurdish Refugee Communities, London: Macmillan. Wahlbeck, Ö. (2015) “The Finnish and Swedish migration dynamics and transnational social spaces”, Mobilities, 10(1), 100-118. DOI: 10.1080/17450101.2013.849488
213. Warf, B. (2010) “Relative/relational space”, In Barney Warf (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Geography (pp.2403-2406).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
214. Wimmer, A., Glick-Schiller, N. (2002) “Methodological nationalism and beyond: nation–state building, migration and the social sciences”, Global Networks, 2(4), 301-334. DOI: 10.1111/1471-0374.00043
215. Wong, L.L. (1997) “Globalization and transnational migration: A study of recent Chinese capitalist migration from the Asian Pacific to Canada”, International Sociology, 12(3), 329-351. DOI: 10.1177/026858097012003004
216. World Bank (2006) Global Economic Prospects: Economic Implications of Remittances and Migration, Washington, DC: The World Bank.
217. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/507301468142196936/pdf/343200GEP02006.pdf World Bank Group (2017) Migration and Remittances, Recent Developments and Outlook Special Topic: Global Compact on Migration, The Global Knowledge Partnership on Migration and Development. http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/992371492706371662/MigrationandDevelopmentBrief27.pdf
218. Zhou, M. (2004) “Revisiting ethnic entrepreneurship: Convergencies, controversies, and conceptual advancements”, International Migration Review, 38(3), 1040-1074. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747- 7379.2004.tb00228.x