Changes in Land Use and Vegetation in Anatolia in the Middle-Late Holocene According to Fossil Pollen Records

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 20 Sayı: 1, 1 - 24, 29.04.2022

Aziz Ören

https://doi.org/10.33688/aucbd.959675

Cited By: 1

Öz

The most important data in determining palaeovegetation changes and palaeoland use characteristics are fossil pollen records and anthropogenic indicators included in these records. In this study, it is aimed to determine the palaeoland use periods and palaeovegetation changes by evaluating the indicators in the diagrams obtained from the fossil pollen records and to present them to the use of palaeogeography researchers. For this purpose, fossil pollen studies carried out in different locations in Anatolia were evaluated and three different periods were determined; 1. Tree pollens with high competitive ability were observed during the period when natural vegetation was preserved. 2. Pollen taxa and anthropogenic indicators of plants showing the development of invasive vegetation as a result of the destruction of the natural forest during the deforestation and intensive agriculture period have spread. 3. In the period of temporary abandonment of the land, anthropogenic indicators and the plants that spread in the areas where the forests were destroyed significantly decreased, while the development of secondary forest was observed.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Palaeovegetation change, Palaeoland use, Fossil pollen, Beyşehir occupation phase, Palaeogeography

Fosil Polen Kayıtlarına Göre Orta-Geç Holosen’de Anadolu’da Arazi Kullanımı ve Vejetasyonda Meydana Gelen Değişimler

Öz

Paleovejetasyon değişimleri ve paleoarazi kullanımı özelliklerinin belirlenmesinde en önemli veriler fosil polen kayıtları ve bu kayıtlar içerisinde yer alan antropojenik göstergelerdir. Bu çalışmada fosil polen kayıtlarından elde edilen diyagramlardaki göstergeler değerlendirilerek paleoarazi kullanım dönemleri ve paleovejetasyon değişimlerinin belirlenmesi ve paleocoğrafya araştırmacılarının kullanımına sunulması amaçlanmıştır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda Anadolu’da farklı lokasyonlarda gerçekleştirilen fosil polen çalışmaları değerlendirilmiş ve üç farklı dönem belirlenmiştir; 1. Doğal vejetasyonun korunduğu dönemde yüksek rekabet yeteneğine sahip ağaç polenleri görülmüştür. 2. Orman tahribi ve yoğun tarım döneminde doğal ormanın tahribatı sonucunda istilacı vejetasyon gelişimini gösteren bitkilere ait polen taksonları ve antropojenik göstergeler yayılış göstermiştir. 3. Arazinin geçici olarak terk edilme döneminde antropojenik göstergeler ile ormanların tahrip edildiği sahalarda yayılış gösteren bitkiler belirgin şekilde azalırken, ikincil ormanların gelişimi görülmüştür.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Paleovejetasyon değişimi, Paleoarazi kullanımı, Fosil polen, Beyşehir İskân Dönemi, Paleocoğrafya

Kaynakça

• Atalay, İ. (1992). The paleogeography of the Near East (from late Pleistocene to early Holocene) and human impact. İzmir: Ege University Press.
• Bakker, J., Paulissen, E., Kaniewski, D., De Laet, V., Verstraeten, G., Waelkens, M. (2012). Man, vegetation and climate during the Holocene in the Territory of Sagalassos, Western Taurus mountains, SW Turkey. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 21 (4), 249-266. doi: 10.1007/S00334-011-0312-4
• Bakker, J., Paulissen, E., Kaniewski, D., Poblome, J., De Laet, V., Verstraeten, G., Waelkens, M. (2013). Climate, people, fire and vegetation: new insights into vegetation dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean since the 1st century AD. Climate of the Past, 9 (1), 57-87. doi: 10.5194/cp-9-57-2013
• Behre, K. E. (1981). The interpretation of anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams. Pol1en et Spores, 23 (2), 225-245.
• Behre, K. E. (1988). The role of man in European vegetation history. Huntley, B. W., Webb, T. III (Ed.), Vegetation history (633-672). Dordrecht: Springer. doi: 10.1007/978-94-009-3081-0_17
• Behre, K. E. (1990). Some reflections on anthropogenic indicators and the record of prehistoric occupation phases in pollen diagrams from the Near East. In Bottema, S., Entjes-Nieborg, G., van Zeist, W. (Eds.), Man's Role in the Shaping of the Eastern Mediterranean Landscape (219-230). Rotterdam: A. A. Balkema.
• Bell, M., Walker, M. J. C. (1992). Late Quaternary Environmental Change: Physical and human perspectives. Harlow: Longman Group UK Limited.
• Berglund, B. E. (1988). The cultural landscape during 6000 years in South Sweden-an interdisciplinary study. In Birks, H. H., Birks, H. J. B., Kaland, P. E., Moe, D. (Eds.), The Cultural Landscape: Past, Present and Future (241-254) .Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Berglund, B. E., Emanuelsson, U., Persson, S., Persson, T. (1986). Pollen/vegetation relationships in grazed and mowed plant communities of South Sweden. Behre, K. E. (Eds.), Anthropogenic Indicators in Pollen Diagrams (37-51). Rotterdam: Balkema.
• Berglund, B. E., Ralska-Jasiewiczowa, M. (1986). Pollen analysis. Berglund, B. E. (Ed.), Handbook of Holocene Palaeoecology and Palaeohydrology (455-484). Chichester: Wiley.
• Biltekin, D.,Eriş, K. K., Çağatay, M. N., Akçer Ön, S., Bal Akkoca, D. (2018). Late Pleistocene–Holocene environmental change in eastern Turkey: multi-proxy palaeoecological data of vegetation and lake-catchment changes. Journal of Quaternary Science, 33 (5), 575-585. doi: 10.1002/jqs.3037
• Birks, H. H., Birks, H. J. B., Kaland, P. E., Moe, D. (1988). The Cultural Landscape: Past, Present, and Future. London: Cambridge University Press.
• Birks, H. J. B. (1990). Indicator values of pollen types from post-6000 B.P. pollen assemblages from southern England and southern Sweden. Quaternary Studies in Poland, 10, 21-31.
• Birks H. J. B., Gordon, A. D. (1985). Numerical Methods in Quaternary Pollen Analysis. London: Academic Press.
• Bottema, S., Woldring, H. (1984). Late Quaternary vegetation and climate of Southwestern Turkey. Part II. Palaeohistoria, 26, 123-149.
• Bottema, S., Woldring, H. (1990). Anthropogenic indicators in the pollen record of the Eastern Mediterranean. In Bottema, S., Entjes-Nieborg, G., van Zeist, W. (Eds.), Man's Role in the Shaping of the Eastern Mediterranean Landscape (231-264). Rotterdam: Balkema.
• Bottema, S., Woldring, H. (1995). The environment of classical Sagalassos: a palynological investigation. Sagalassos III, Report on the fourth excavation campaign of 1993, Acta Archaeologica Lovaniensia Monographiae 7 (327-340). Leuven: Leuven University Press.
• Bottema, S., Woldring, H., Aytuğ, B. (1986). Palynological investigations on the relations between prehistoric man and vegetation in Turkey: The Beyşehir Occupation Phase. In Demiriz, H., Özhatay, N. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th Optima Congress (315-328). September, 1986, İstanbul.
• Bottema, S., Woldring, H., Aytuğ, B. (1993-1994). Late Quaternary vegetation history of northern Turkey. Palaeohistoria, 35/36, 13-72.
• Brun, C. (2011). Anthropogenic indicators in pollen diagrams in eastern France: a critical review. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 20 (2), 135-142.
• Brun, C., Dessaint, F., Richard, H., Bretagnolle, F. (2007). Arable-weed flora and its pollen representation: a case study from the eastern part of France. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 146 (1-4), 29-50. doi: 10.1016/j.revpalbo.2007.02.001
• Eastwood, W. J., Gümüşçü, O., Yiğitbaşıoğlu, H., Haldon, J. F., England, A. (2009). Integrating Palaeoecological and Archaeo-Historical records: Land use and Landscape change in Cappadocia (central Turkey) since late Antiquity. In Vorderstrasse, T., Roodenberg, J. (Eds.), Archaeology of The Countryside in Medieval Anatolia (45-69). Pihans.
• Eastwood, W. J., Roberts, N., Lamb, H. F. (1998). Palaeoecological and archaeological evidence for human occupance in southwest Turkey: the Beyşehir occupation phase. Anatolian Studies, 48, 69-86. doi: 10.2307/3643048
• Eastwood, W. J., Roberts, N., Lamb, H. F., Tibby, J. C. (1999). Holocene environmental change in southwest Turkey: a palaeoecological record of lake and catchment-related changes. Quaternary Science Reviews, 18 (4-5), 671-695. doi: 10.1016/S0277-3791(98)00104-8
• Edwards, K. J., MacDonald, G. M. (1991). Holocene palynology: II human influence and vegetation change. Progress in Physical Geography, 15 (4), 364-391. doi: 10.1177/030913339101500402
• Ejarque, A., Miras, Y., Riera, S. (2011). Pollen and non-pollen palynomorph indicators of vegetation and highland grazing activities obtained from modern surface and dung datasets in the eastern Pyrenees. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 167 (1-2), 123-139. doi: 10.1016/j.revpalbo.2011.08.001
• England, A., Eastwood, W. J., Roberts, C. N., Turner, R., Haldon, J. F. (2008). Historical landscape change in Cappadocia (central Turkey): a palaeoecological investigation of annually-laminated sediments from Nar lake. The Holocene, 18 (8), 1229-1245. doi: 10.1177/0959683608096598
• Eriş, K. K., Arslan, T. N., Sabuncu, A. (2018). Influences of Climate and Tectonic on the Middle to Late Holocene Deltaic Sedimentation in Lake Hazar, Eastern Turkey. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 43 (7), 3685-3697. doi: 10.1007/s13369-017-3021-1
• Gaillard, M. J. (2007). Archaeological Applications. In Elias, S., Mock, M. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science (2570-2595). Second Edition-Elsevier.
• Gaillard, M. J., Birks, H. J. B., Emaunelsson, U., Berglund, B. E. (1992). Modern pollen/land-use relationships as an aid in the reconstruction of past land-uses and cultural landscapes: an example from south Sweden. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 1 (1), 3-17. doi: 10.1007/BF00190697
• Gaillard, M. J., Birks, H. J. B., Emanuelsson, U., Karlsson, S., Lageras, P., Olausson, D. (1994). Application of modern pollen/land-use relationships to the interpretation of pollen diagrams- Reconstructions of land-use history in South Sweden, 3000-0 BP. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 82 (1-2), 47-73. doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(94)90019-1
• Greig, J. (1984). The palaeoecology of some British hay meadow types. In van Zeist, W., Casparie, W. A. (Eds.), Plants and Ancient Man (213-226). Rotterdam: Balkema.
• Groenman-van Waateringe, W. (1986). Grazing possibilities in the Neolithic of the Netherlands based on palynological data. Behre, K. E. (Ed.), Anthropogenic Indicators in Pollen Diagrams (187-202). Rotterdam: Balkema.
• Hall, V. A. (1989). A study of modern pollen rain from a reconstructed 19th century farm. The Irish Natuarilsts’ Journal, 23 (3), 82-92.
• Hicks, S. (1988). The representation of different farming practices in pollen diagrams from northern Finland. Birks, H. H., Birks, H. J. B., Kaland, P. E., Moe, D. (Ed.), The cultural landscape-past, present and future (189-207). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Hicks, S., Birks, H. J. B. (1996). Numerical analysis of modern and fossil pollen spectra as a tool for elucidating the nature of fine-scale human activities in boreal areas. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 5 (4), 257-272. doi:10.1007/bf00195295
• Hjelle, K. L. (1999a). Modern pollen assemblages from mown and grazed vegetation types in western Norway. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 107 (1-2), 55–81. doi: 10.1016/S0034-6667(99)00015-9
• Hjelle, K. L. (1999b). Use of modern pollen samples and estimated pollen representation factors as aids in the interpretation of cultural activity in local pollen diagrams. Norwegian Archaeological Review, 32 (1), 19-39. doi: 10.1080/002936599420885
• Iversen, J. (1941). Land occupation in Denmark's Stone age. A pollen-analytical study of the influence of farmer culture on the vegetational development. Rӕkke: Danmarks Geologiske Undersøgelse II, 2 (66), 20-68.
• Iversen, J. (1949). The influence of prehistoric man on vegetation. Rӕkke: Danmarks Geologiske Undersøgelse, 3 (6), 1-25.
• Iversen, J. (1964). Plant indicators of climate, soil, and other factors during the Quaternary. Rep VI Int Congr Quater Warsaw 1961, Sect 2, 421-428.
• Izdebski, A. (2013). A Rural Economy in Transition: Asia Minor from Late Antiquity into the early Middle Ages. Journal of Juristic Papyrology supplement 18. Warsaw: Raphael Taubenschlag Foundation.
• Jahns, S. (1993). On the Holocene vegetation history of the Argive Plain (Peloponnese, southern Greece). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 2 (4), 187-203. doi: 10.1007/BF00198161
• Kaniewski, D., De Laet, V., Paulissen, E., Waelkens, M. (2007). Long-term effects of human impact on mountainous ecosystems, western Taurus Mountains, Turkey. Journal of Biogeography, 34 (11), 1975-1997. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-2699.2007.01753.x
• Kaniewski, D., Paulissen, E., De Laet, V., Waelkens, M. (2008). Late Holocene fire impact and post-fire regeneration from the Bereket basin, Taurus Mountains, southwest Turkey. Quaternary Research, 70 (2), 228-239. doi: 10.1016/j.yqres.2008.04.002
• Kaplan, G., Heumann, G. (2010). Van Gölü Kuzey Havzası’nın Son 1000 Yıllık polen Profili: İlk Sonuçlar. Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, 15 (2), 115-120.
• Kaplan, G., Örçen, S. (2011). Late Holocene Paleoflora of Lake Van Northern Basin. Bulletin of the Earth Sciences Application and Research Centre of Hacettepe University, 32 (2), 139-150.
• Knipping, M., Müllenhoff, M., Brückner, H. (2008). Human induced landscape changes around Bafa Gölü (western Turkey). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 17 (4), 365-380. doi: 10.1007/s00334-007-0132-8
• Landmann, G., Reimer, A., Lemcke, G., Kempe, S. (1996). Dating Late Glacial abrupt climate changes in the 14,750 yr long continuous record of Lake Van, Turkey. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 122 (1-4), 107-118.
• Leroy, S., Kazancı, N., İlleri, Ö., Kibar, M., Emre, O., McGee, E., Griffiths, H. I. (2002). Abrupt environmental changes within a late Holocene lacustrine sequence south of the Marmara Sea (Lake Manyas, NW Turkey): possible links with seismic events. Marine Geology, 190 (1-2), 531-552. doi: 10.1016/S0025-3227(02)00361-4
• Leroy, S. A. G., Schwab, M. J., Costa, P. J. M. (2010). Seismic influence on the last 1500-year infill history of Lake Sapanca (North Anatolian Fault, NW Turkey). Tectonophysics, 486 (1-4), 15-27. doi: 10.1016/j.tecto.2010.02.005
• Li, M., Xu, Q., Zhang, S., Li, Y., Ding, W., Li, J. (2015). Indicator pollen taxa of human-induced and natural vegetation in Northern China. The Holocene, 25 (4), 686-701. doi: 10.1177/0959683614566219
• Li, Y. Y., Zhou, L. P., Cui, H. T. (2008). Pollen indicators of human activity. Chinese Science Bulletin, 53 (9), 1281-1293. doi: 10.1007/s11434-008-0181-0
• Litt, T., Krastel, S., Sturm, M., Kipfer, R., Örçen, S., Heumann, G., Franz, S. O., Ülgen, U. B., Niessen, F. (2009). ‘PALEOVAN’, International Continental Scientific Drilling Program (ICDP): site survey results and perspectives. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28 (15-16), 1555-1567. doi: 10.1016/j.quascirev.2009.03.002
• Love, J. J., Walker, M. J. C. (2015). Reconstructing Quaternary Environments (3rd edition). Oxon: Routledge.
• Mercuri, A. M., Bandini Mazzanti, M., Florenzano, A., Montecchi, M. C., Rattighieri E. (2013). Olea, Juglans and Castanea: the OJC group as pollen evidence of the development of human-induced environments in the Italian peninsula. Quaternary International, 303, 24-42. doi: 10.1016/j.quaint.2013.01.005
• Miebach, A., Niestrath, P., Roeser, P., Litt, T. (2016). Impacts of climate and humans on the vegetation in northwestern Turkey: palynological insights from Lake Iznik since the Last Glacial. Climate of the Past, 12 (2), 575-593. doi: 10.5194/cp-12-575-2016
• Müllenhoff, M., Handl, M., Knipping, M., Brückner, H. (2004). The evolution of Lake Bafa (Western Turkey)-Sedimentological, microfaunal and palynological results. G. Schernewski und T. Dolch (Hrsg.): Geographie der Meere und Küsten, Coastline Reports, 1, 55-66.
• Ne’eman, G., Goubitz, S., Nathan, R. (2004). Reproductive traits of Pinus halepensis in the light of fire-a critical review. Plant Ecology, 171 (1), 69-79. doi: 10.1023/B:VEGE.0000029380.04821.99
• Neumann F. H., Kagan E. J., Leroy S. A. G., Baruch U. (2010). Vegetation History and Climate Fluctuations on a Transect along the Dead Sea West Shore and their Impact on Past Societies over the last 3500 years. Journal of Arid Environments, 74 (7), 756-764. doi: 10.1016/j.jaridenv.2009.04.015
• Neumann, F., Schölzel, C., Litt, T., Hense, A., Stein, M. (2007). Holocene vegetation and climate history of the northern Golan heights (Near East). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 16 (4), 329-346. doi: 10.1007/s00334-006-0046-x
• Ocakoğlu, F., Oybak Dönmez, E., Akbulut, A., Tunoğlu, C., Kır, O., Açıkalın, S., Erayık, C., Yılmaz, İ. Ö., Leroy, S. A. G. (2016). A 2800-year multi-proxy sedimentary record of climate change from Lake Çubuk (Göynük, Bolu, NW Anatolia). The Holocene, 26 (2), 205-221. doi: 10.1177/0959683615596818
• Ören, A. (2018). Kültepe (Kayseri) Çevresinin Fosil Polen Analizleri Işığında Holosen Paleocoğrafyası. Ankara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Ankara. https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/tezSorguSonucYeni.jsp adresinden edinilmiştir.
• Ören, A. (2020). Fosil polen analizlerinde kullanılan antropojenik göstergelerin değerlendirilmesi ve arazi kullanım şekilleri. Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, 75, 163-172. doi: 10.17211/tcd.706977
• Randall, R. E., Andrew, R., West, R. G. (1986). Pollen catchment in relation to local vegetation: Ceann Ear, Monach Isles N.N.R., Outer Hebrides. New Phytologist, 104 (2), 271-310. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.1986.tb00651.x
• Roberts, N. (1990). Human-induced landscape change in South and Southwest Turkey during the later Holocene. In Bottema, S., Entjes-Nieborg, G., van Zeist, W., (Eds.), Man’s Role in the Shaping of the Eastern Mediterranean Landscape (53-66). Rotterdam: Balkema.
• Roberts, N. (2014). The Holocene: an environmental history (3rd edition). Oxford: Wiley Blackwell.
• Roberts, N., Allcock, S. L., Arnaud, F., Dean, J. R., Eastwood, W. J., Jones, M. D., Leng, M. J., Metcalfe, S. E., Malet, E., Woodbridge, J., Yiğitbaşıoğlu, H. (2016). A tale of two lakes: a multi-proxy comparison of Lateglacial and Holocene environmental change in Cappadocia, Turkey. Journal of Quaternary Science, 31 (4), 348-362. doi: 10.1002/jqs.2852
• Roberts, N., Cassis, M., Doonan, O., Eastwood, W., Elton, H., Haldon, J., Izdebski, A., Newhard, J. (2018). Not the End of the World? Post-Classical Decline and Recovery in Rural Anatolia. Human Ecology, 46 (3), 305-322. doi: 10.1007/s10745-018-9973-2
• Roberts, N., Eastwood, W. J., Kuzucuoğlu, C., Fiorentino, G., Caracuta, V. (2011). Climatic, vegetation and cultural change in the eastern Mediterranean during the mid-Holocene environmental transition. The Holocene, 21 (1), 147-162. doi:10.1177/0959683610386819
• Roberts, N., Wright Jr, H. E. (1993). Vegetational, lake level and climatic history of the Near East and Southwestern Asia. In Wright Jr, H. E., Kutzbach, J. E., Webb III, T., Ruddiman, W. F., Street-Perrott, F. A., Bartlein, P. J. (Eds.), Global climates since the Last Glacial Maximum (53-67). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
• Shu, J., Wang, W., Jiang, L., Takahara, H. (2010). Early Neolithic vegetation history, fire regime and human activity at Kuahuqiao, Lower Yangtze River, East China: New and improved insight. Quaternary International, 227 (1), 10-21. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2010.04.010
• Song, C. Q., Sun, X. J. (1999). Advances in studies of Quaternary Palynology in China. Advances in Earth Science, 14 (4), 401-406.
• Sullivan, D. G. (1988). The Discovery of Santorini Minoan Tephra in Western Turkey. Nature, 333 (6173), 552-554. doi:10.1038/333552a0
• Şenkul, Ç., Ören, A., Doğan, U., Eastwood, W. J. (2018). Late Holocene environmental changes in the vicinity of Kültepe (Kayseri), Central Anatolia, Turkey. Quaternary International, 486, 107-115. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2017.12.044
• Tomaselli, R. (1977). The degradation of the Mediterranean maquis. Ambio, 6 (6), 356-362.
• Turner, R., Roberts, N., Jones, M. D. (2008). Climatic pacing of Mediterranean fire histories from lake sedimentary microcharcoal. Global and Planetary Change, 63 (4), 317-324. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2008.07.002
• van Zeist, W., Bottema, S. (1991). Late Quaternary vegetation of the Near East. In Reihe, A. (Ed.), Atlas des vorderen Orients (Naturwissenschaften no. 18) (156 pp). Wiesbaden: Beihefte zum Tübingen.
• van Zeist, W., Woldring, H. (1978). A postglacial pollen diagram from Lake Van in east Anatolia. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 26 (1-4), 249-276. doi:10.1016/0034-6667(78)90015-5
• van Zeist, W., Woldring, H., Stapert, D. (1975). Late Quaternary vegetation and climate of the southwestern Turkey. Palaeohistoria, 17, 53-143.
• Vavrus, S., Ruddiman, W. F., Kutzbach, J. E. (2008). Climate model tests of the anthropogenic influence on greenhouse-induced climate change: The role of early human agriculture, industrialization, and vegetation feedbacks. Quaternary Science Reviews, 27 (13-14), 1410-1425. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.04.011
• Vermoere, M., Bottema, S., Vanhecke, L., Waelkens, M., Smets, E. (2002). Palynological evidence for late-Holocene human occupation recorded in two wetlands in SW Turkey. The Holocene, 12 (5), 569-584. doi:10.1191/0959683602hl568rp
• Vermoere, M., Degryse, P., Paulissen, E., Vanhecke, L., Waelkens, M., Smets, E. (1999). Pollen analysis of two travertine sections in Basköy (southwestern Turkey): implications for environmental conditions during the early Holocene. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 105 (1-2), 93-100. doi:10.1016/s0034-6667(98)00068-2
• Vermoere, M., Smets, E. (1996). Palynological investigations of travertine deposits in Basköy (southwest Turkey). Biologisch Jaarboek-Dodonaea, 64, 160-175.
• Vermoere, M., Smets, E., Waelkens, M., Vanhaverbeke, H., Librecht, I., Paulissen, E., Vanhecke, L. (2000). Late Holocene environmental change and the record of human impact at Gravgaz near Sagalassos, Southwest Turkey. Journal of Archaeological Science, 27 (7), 571-595. doi:10.1006/jasc.1999.0478
• Vorren, K. D. (1986). The impact of early agriculture on the vegetation of Northern Norway. A discussion of anthropogenic indicators in biostratigraphical data. In Behre, K. E. (Ed.), Anthropogenic Indicators in Pollen Diagrams (1-18). Rotterdam: Balkema.
• Vuorela, I. (1973). Relative pollen rain around cultivated fields. Acta Botanica Fennica, 102, 1-27.
• Wick, L., Lemcke, G., Sturm, M. (2003). Evidence of Lateglacial and Holocene climatic change and human impact in eastern Anatolia: high-resolution pollen, charcoal, isotopic and geochemical records from the laminated sediments of Lake Van, Turkey. The Holocene, 13 (5), 665-675. doi:10.1191/0959683603hl653rp
• Wright Jr, H. E. (1967). The use of surface samples in Quaternary polen analysis. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 2 (1-4), 321-330. doi: 10.1016/0034-6667(67)90162-5
• Yang, S., Zheng, Z., Huang, K., Zong, Y., Wang, J., Xu, Q., V Rolett, B., Li, J. (2012). Modern pollen assemblages from cultivated rice fields and rice pollen morphology: Application to a study of ancient land use and agriculture in the Pearl River Delta, China. The Holocene, 22 (12), 1393-1404. doi:10.1177/0959683612449761
• Yasuda, Y., Kitagawa, H., Nakagawa, T. (2000). The earliest record of major anthropogenic deforestation in the Ghab Valley, northwest Syria: A palynological study. Quaternary International, 73/74, 127-136. doi:10.1016/s1040-6182(00)00069-0
• Zohary, M. (1973). Geobotanical Foundations of the Near East. (Vol. 2, 738 pp.). Stuttgart: Fischer.
• Zohary, D., Hopf, M. (2000). Domestication of Plants in the Old World (3rd edition). New York: Oxford University Press.