Is Inequality Desired When Power Distance is High?

Öz

In this study, the concept of power is discussed, sources of power are examined and power distance from a cultural perspective is investigated. The effects of power on organizations, groups and indivuals in societies with high levels of power distance are examined. It is proposed that, in societies with high levels of power distance, power holders have a high tendency to give decisions based on stereotyping, group stereotyping, in-group bias, and the tendency of in-group favoritism are expected to be higher. In addition, within groups of high status, in-group favoritism can be expected to be even higher and this can cause intergroup discrimination

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Power
• power distance
• stereotyping
• in-group favoritism
• intergroup discrimination

Güç Mesafesi Yüksekse Eşitsizlik mi İstenir?

Öz

Çalışmada, güç kavramı incelenmiş, gücün kaynakları araştırılmış ve kültürel anlamda güç mesafesi konusu incelenmiştir. Güç mesafesi yüksek toplumlarda, gücün örgüt düzeyine, grup düzeyine ve birey düzeyine yansımaları araştırılmıştır. Bu tür toplumlarda, güç sahibi olanların kalıp yargılarla karar verme eğiliminin, grup kalıp yargılarının ve grup içi önyargıların daha fazla olmasının beklenebileceği, grup kalıp yargılarının ve grup içi önyargıların da etkisiyle grup içi kayırmacılık eğiliminin artabileceği önerilmiştir. Ayrıca, eşitliğe muhalefet ile gruba dayalı baskınlık eğiliminin, grup içi kayırmacılık ve gruplar arası ayrımcılığa, grup içi kayırmacılığın da gruplar arası ayrımcılığa neden olabileceği önerilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Güç
• güç mesafesi
• kalıp yargı
• grup içi kayırmacılık
• gruplar arası ayrımcılık

Kaynakça

1. Ayman, Roya, Martin M. Chemers ve Fred Fiedler (1995), “The Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness: its Level of Analysis”, Leadership Quarterly, 6 (2): 147-167.
2. Balaban, Çiğdem D. (2013), “Türklerin Kürtlere Yönelik Önyargısını Yordamada Gruplar Arası Tehdidin, Sosyal Baskınlık Yöneliminin ve Sağ Kanat Yetkeciliğin Rolü ”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, (Ankara: ODTÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü).
3. Bayram, Fatma N. (2008), “Cinsiyet Rolleri, İlgi Etiği ve Sosyal Baskınlık Yönelimi: Hiyerarşiye Feminen Bir Bakış”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi (İstanbul: Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü).
4. Dasgupta, Nilanjana (2004), “Implicit Intergroup Favoritism, Outgroup Favoritism and Their Behavioral Manifestations”, Social Justice Research, 17 (2): 143-169.
5. De Dreu, Carsten K. W. ve Gerben A.Van Kleef (2004), “The Influence of Power on The Information Search, Impression Formation, and Demands in Negotiation”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 40: 303-319.
6. Ebenbach, David H. ve Dacher Keltner (1998), “Power, Emotion and Judgemental Accuracy in Social Conflict: Motivating the Cognitive Miser”, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 20 (1): 7-21.
7. Emerson, Richard M. (1962), “Power – Dependence Relations”, American Sociological Review, 27 (1): 31-41.
8. Ghosh, Apoorva (2011), “Power Distance in Organizational Contexts- A Review Of Collectivist Cultures”, The Indian Journal of Industrial Relations, 47 (1): 89-101.

9. Goodwin, Stephanie A., Alexandra Gubin, Susan T. Fiske ve Vincent Y. Yzerbyt (2000), “Power can Bias Impression Processes: Stereotyping Subordinates by Default and by Design”, Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 3 (3): 227-256.
10. Haslam, S. Alexander, Stephen D. Reicher ve Katherine J. Reynolds (2012), “Identity, Influence and Change: Rediscovering John Turner’s Vision For Social Psychology”, British Journal of Social Psychology, 51 (2): 201-218.
11. Hewstone, Miles, Mark Rubin ve Hazel Willis (2002), “Intergroup Bias”, Annual Review of Psychology, 53 (1): 575-604.
12. Hindriks, Paul, Maykel Verkuyten ve Marcel Coenders (2014), “Dimensions of Social Dominance Orientation: The Roles of Legitimizing Myths and National Identification”, European Journal of Personality, 28 (6): 538-549.
13. Ho, Arnold K., Jim Sidanius, Felicia Pratto, Shana Levin, Lotte Thomsen, Nour Kteily ve Jennifer Sheehy-Skeffington (2012), “Social Dominance Orientation: Revisiting the Structure and Function of a Variable Predicting Social and Political Attitudes”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38 (5): 583-606.
14. Hofstede, Geert (1983a), “National Cultures in Four Dimensions”, International Studies of Management and Organization, 13 (1-2): 46-74.
15. Hofstede, Geert (1983b), “The Cultural Relativity of Organizational Practices And Theories”, Journal of International Business Studies, 14 (2): 75-89.
16. Hofstede, Geert (1985), “The Interaction Between National and Organizational Value Systems”, Journal of Management Studies, 22 (4): 347-357.
17. Hogg, Michael A., John C. Turner ve Barbara Davidson (1990), “Polarized Norms and Social Frames of Reference: A Test of the Self-Categorization Theory of Group Polarization”, Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 11 (1), 77-100.
18. Hogg, Michael A. ve Deborah J. Terry (2000), “Social Identity and Self-Categorization Processes in Organizational Contexts”, Academy of Management Review, 25 (1): 121-140.
19. Johnson, Camille S. ve Joris Lammers (2012), “The Powerful Disregard Social Comparison Information”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48 (1): 329-334.
20. Jost, John T., Brett W. Pelham ve Mauricio R. Carvallo (2002), “Non-Conscious Forms of System Justification: Implicit and Behavioral Preferences for Higher Status Groups”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 38 (6): 586-602.
21. Jost, John T. ve Erik P. Thompson (2000), “Group-Based Dominance and Opposition to Equality as Independent Predictors of Self Esteem, Ethnocentrism and Social Policy Attitudes among African Americans and European Americans”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36 (3): 209-232.
22. Karaçanta, Hatice (2002), “Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Sosyal Baskınlık Yönelimi ve Başka Bazı Değişkenler Açısından Karşılaştırılması”, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü).
23. Khatri, Naresh (2009), “Consequences of Power Distance Orientation in Organizations”, The Journal of Business Perspective, 13 (1): 1-9.
24. Klocke, Ulrich (2009), “I am the Best : Effects of Influence Tactics and Power Bases on Powerholders’ Self Evaluation and Target Evaluation”, Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 12 (5): 619-637.
25. Koslowsky, Meni, Joseph Schwarzwald ve Sigal Ashuri (2001), “On the Relationship between Subordinates’ Compliance to Power Sources and Organizational Attitudes”, Applied Psychology:An International Review, 50 (3): 455-476.
26. Krackhardt, David (1990), “Assessing the Political Landscape: Structure, Cognition and Power in Organizations”, Administrative Science Quarterly, 35 (2): 342-369.
27. Kugler, Matthew B., Joel Cooper ve Brian A. Nosek (2010), “Group-Based Dominance and Opposition to Equality Correspond to Different Psychological Motives”, Social Justice Research, 23 (2): 117-155.
28. Leikas, Sointu, Jan – Eric Lönnqvist, Markku Verkasalo ve Vesa Nissinen (2013), “Power and Personality Perception in Real-Life Hierarchical Relationships”, European Journal of Personality, 27 (2): 155-168.
29. Levin, Shana, Christopher M. Federico, Jim Sidanius ve Joshua L. Rabinowitz (2002), “Social Dominance Orientation and İntergroup Bias: The Legitimation of Favoritism for High Status Groups”, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28 (2): 144-157.
30. Magee, Joe C (2009), “Seeing Power in Action: The Roles of Deliberation, Implementation and Action in Inferences of Power”, The Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45 (1): 1- 14.
31. Magee, Joe C. ve Adam D. Galinsky (2008), “Social Hierarchy: The Self-Reinforcing Nature of Power and Status”, Academy of Management Annals, 2 (1): 351-398.
32. Molm, Linda D. (1988), “The Structure and Use of Power: A Comparison of Reward and Punishment Power”, Social Psychology Quarterly, 51 (2): 108-122.
33. Overbeck, Jennifer R. ve Vitaliya Droutman (2013), “One for All: Social Power Increases Self- Anchoring of Traits, Attitudes and Emotions”, Psychological Science, 24 (8): 1466-1476.
34. Overbeck, Jennifer R. ve Bernadette Park (2006), “Powerful Perceivers, Powerless Objects: Flexibility of Power Holders’ Social Attention”, Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99 (2): 227-243.
35. Overbeck, Jennifer R., John T. Jost, Cristina O. Mosso ve Agnieszka Flizik (2004), “Resistant Versus Acquiescent Responses to Ingroup Inferiority as a Function of Social Dominance Orientation in the USA and Italy”, Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 7 (1): 35- 54.
36. Poppe, Edwin ve Hub Linssen (1999), “In-Group Favouritism and the Reflection of Realistic Dimensions of Difference Between National States in Central and Eastern Europe and Nationality Stereotypes”, British Journal of Social Psychology, 38 (1): 85-102.
37. Robbins, Jordan M. ve Joachim I. Krueger (2005), “Social Projection to Ingroups and Outgroups: A Review and Meta-Analysis”, Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9 (1): 32-47.
38. Rodríguez-Bailón, Rosa, Miguel Moya ve Vincent Yzerbyt (2000), “Why do Superiors Attend to Negative Stereotypic Information About Their Subordinates? Effects of Power Legitimacy on Social Perception”, European Journal of SocialPsychology, 30 (5): 651-671.
39. Rosenblatt, Valerie (2012), “Hierarchies, Power Inequalities and Organizational Corruption”, Journal of Business Ethics, 111 (2): 237-251.
40. Rubin, Mark ve Miles Hewstone (2004), “Social Identity, System Justification and Social Dominance: Commentary on Reicher, Jost et al. and Sidanius et al.”, Political Psychology, 25 (6): 823-844.
41. Sachdev, Itesh ve Richard Y. Bourhis (1991), “Power and Status Differentials in Minority and Majority Group Relations”, European Journal of Social Psychology, 21 (1): 1-24.
42. Salancik, Gerald R. ve Jeffrey Pfeffer (1977), “Who Gets Power – and How They Hold on to it: A Strategic-Contingency Model of Power”, Organizational Dynamics, 5 (3): 3-21.
43. Sidanius, Jim ve Felicia Pratto (2004), “Social Dominance Theory: A New Synthesis”, Jost, John T. ve Jim Sidanius (Der.), Political Psychology (New York: Psychology Press): 420-442
44. Smith, D. Randall, Nancy DiTomaso, George F. Farris ve Rene Cordero (2001), “Favoritism, Bias and Error in Performance Ratings of Scientists and Engineers: The Effect of Power, Status and Numbers”, Sex Roles, 45 (5-6): 337-358.
45. Tajfel, Henri ve John C. Turner (1979), “The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations”, William G. Austin & Stephen Worchel (Der.), An Integrative Theory of Intergroup Conflict, (Monterey,CA: Brooks-Cole): 33-47.
46. Turner, John C. (1975), “Social Comparison and Social İdentity: Some Prospects for İntergroup Behaviour”, European Journal of Social Psychology, 5 (1): 5-34.
47. Turner, John C. (2005), “Explaining the Nature of Power: A Three-Process Theory”, European Journal of Social Psychology, 35: 1-22.
48. Voci, Alberto (2006), “Relevance of Social Categories, Depersonalization and Group Processes: Two Field Tests of Self Categorization Theory”, European Journal of Social Psychology, 36 (1): 73-90.
49. Votaw, Dow (1966), “What do We Believe About Power?”, California Management Review, 8 (4): 71-88.
50. Whitson, Jennifer A., Katie A. Liljenquist, Adam D. Galinsky, Joe C. Magee, Deborah H. Gruenfeld ve Brian Cadena (2013), “The Blinding Leading: Power Reduces Awareness of Constraints”, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49: 579-582.
51. Wyer, Natalie A. (2010), “Selective Self-Categorization: Meaningful Categorization and the In- Group Persuasion Effect”, The Journal of Social Psychology, 150 (5): 452-470.
52. Yıldırım, Necip ve Serap Akgün (2013), “Sivil Toplum Kuruluşu Gönüllülerinin Sosyal Sistemin Meşruiyetine İlişkin Algıları, Adil Dünya İnançları ve Sosyal Baskınlık Yönelimleri ”, Toplum ve Sosyal Hizmet, 24 (1): 115-128.
53. Yılmaz, Muzaffer E. (2014), “Social Identity and Social Conflicts”, Tesam Akademi Dergisi, 1 (2): 137-151.
54. Zhang, Yinlong, Karen Page Winterich ve Vikas Mittal (2010), “Power Distance Belief and Impulsive Buying”, Journal of Marketing Research, 47 (5): 945-954.