Çoklu Bellek Sistemleri Bakış Açısı ile Nörogelişimsel Bozuklukların, Stres ve Ergenlik Dönemi ile İlişkili Psikopatolojilerin İncelenmesi: Bir Derleme Çalışması

Öz

Bu derleme çalışmasının amacı, belirli psikopatolojilerin incelenmesinde ve tedavisinde daha etkili seçeneklerin geliştirilmesine katkı sağlayabileceği düşünülen çoklu bellek sistemleri teorisini klinik psikoloji alan yazınına tanıtmaktır. Öncelikle psikopatolojinin tanımına ve disiplinler arası çalışmaların günümüzdeki önemine yer vererek başlayan çalışma, devamında çoklu bellek sistemlerini ve bu sistemlerin gelişimsel süreçte takip ettiği basamakları açıklamaktadır. Son olarak stres temelli bozukluklar, nörogelişimsel bozukluklar ve ergenlik dönemi psikopatolojilerinin açıklanmasında çoklu bellek sistemleri bakış açısının rolüne bu alanda yapılan çalışmaları derleyerek açıklık getirmektedir. Buna göre çoklu bellek sistemleri bakış açısı, her birinin ayrı ve geniş çaplı etiyolojik çalışmaları bulunan psikopatolojilerin ortak yönü olarak bellek ve öğrenme süreçleri ile bu süreçlerin altında yatan nörobiyolojiye vurgu yapmaktadır. Bu ortak yönlerin anlaşılması, özellikle eş tanılı rahatsızlıkların (örneğin; dikkat eksikliği ve hiperaktivite bozukluğu ile Turet sendromu) etiyolojisinin daha iyi açıklanmasına katkıda bulunabilir. Bununla birlikte; günümüz teknolojisi yardımıyla çoklu bellek sistemlerinden sorumlu ilgili beyin bölgelerinin uyarılması yoluyla izlenen davranışsal müdahale çalışmalarının, psikopatolojilere özgü semptomların azaltılmasında etkili olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. Çoklu bellek sistemlerini esas alarak geliştirilen ve farklı tanı gruplarını hedef alan benzer müdahalelerin etkililiğinin ileriki araştırmalar ile test edilmesi gerekmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• psikopatoloji
• çoklu bellek sistemleri
• stres
• nörogelişimsel bozukluklar
• ergenlik dönemi

Multiple Memory Systems Perspective for Neurodevelopmental Disorders, Adolescence and Stress Related Psychopathologies: A Critical Review

Öz

The aim of this review article is to introduce multiple memory systems theory to the clinical psychology literature, as this theory might contribute to the understanding of some of the psychopathologies and the development of more effective treatment options. The article starts with a definition of psychopathology and the importance of multidisciplinary research at present. It follows with the explanation of multiple memory systems and the developmental trajectory of these systems. Finally, the role of multiple memory systems perspective for stress related disorders, neurodevelopmental disorders and adolescence psychopathologies are explained with a review of the literature. According to that, multiple memory systems perspective highlights memory and learning processes and the underlying neurobiology as common points of different diagnoses, each of which has a separate and wide etiological research. Considering these common points might be important, especially for having a better insight for the etiology of comorbid disorders such as comorbid diagnosis of attention and hyperactivity disorder and Tourette’s syndrome. In addition, the studies indicate that the behavioral interventions targeting the brain areas responsible for multiple memory systems have ameliorating effects on symptomatology, with the help of today’s technological facilities. Further studies are needed for testing the effectiveness of similar interventions, which are based on multiple memory systems perspective, for targeting different diagnostic groups.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• psychopathology
• multiple memory systems
• stress
• neurodevelopmental disorders
• adolescence

Kaynakça

1. Aggleton, J. P., Neave, N., Nagle, S., ve Sahgal, A. (1995). A comparison of the effects of medial prefrontal, cingulate cortex, and cingulum bundle lesions on tests of spatial memory: evidence of a double dissociation between frontal and cingulum bundle contributions. Journal of Neuroscience, 15(11), 7270-7281.
2. Alnæs, D., Kaufmann, T., Doan, N. T., Córdova-Palomera, A., Wang, Y., Bettella, F., Moberget, T., Andreassen, O. A., ve Westlye, L. T. (2018). Association of Heritable Cognitive Ability and Psychopathology With White Matter Properties in Children and Adolescents. JAMA psychiatry, 75(3), 287–295. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2017.4277
3. Amerikan Psikiyatri Birliği (2013), Ruhsal Bozuklukların Tanısal ve Sayımsal El Kitabı, Beşinci Baskı (DSM-5), Tanı Ölçütleri Başvuru Elkitabı’ndan, çev. Köroğolu E, Hekimler Yayın Birliği, Ankara, 2014.
4. Arnett, J. J. (2000). Emerging adulthood: A theory of development from the late teens through the twenties. American Psychologist, 55(5), 469.
5. Arnsten, A. F. (1998). The biology of being frazzled. Science, 280(5370), 1711-1712.
6. Auerbach, R. P., Mortier, P., Bruffaerts, R., Alonso, J., Benjet, C., Cuijpers, P., ... ve Murray, E. (2018). WHO World Mental Health Surveys International College Student Project: prevalence and distribution of mental disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 127(7), 623.
7. Barch, D. M. (2020). What Does It Mean to Be Transdiagnostic and How Would We Know?. Am J Psychiatry, 177(5).
8. Bark, C., ve Resch, F. (2008). Neurobiology of Depression in Childhood and Adolescence. In Biological Child Psychiatry (Vol. 24, pp. 53-66). Karger Publishers.

9. Bator, E., Latusz, J., Wędzony, K., ve Maćkowiak, M. (2018). Adolescent environmental enrichment prevents the emergence of schizophrenia-like abnormalities in a neurodevelopmental model of schizophrenia. European Neuropsychopharmacology, 28(1), 97-108.
10. Bergner, R. M. (1997). What is psychopathology? And so what?. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 4(3), 235-248.
11. Bohil, C. J., Alicea, B., ve Biocca, F. A. (2011). Virtual reality in neuroscience research and therapy. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 12(12), 752.
12. Bowes, L., ve Jaffee, S. R. (2013). Biology, Genes, and Resilience: Toward a Multidisciplinary Approach. Trauma, Violence, ve Abuse, 14(3), 195–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838013487807
13. Boyle L. M. (2013). A neuroplasticity hypothesis of chronic stress in the basolateral amygdala. The Yale Journal Of Biology And Medicine, 86(2), 117–125.
14. Bulik, C. M. (2002). Anxiety, depression and eating disorders. Eating disorders and obesity: A comprehensive handbook, 2(1), 193-198.
15. Butcher, J. N., Mineka, S., ve Hooley, J. M. (2017). Abnormal psychology. Pearson Education India.
16. Byrne, M. E., LeMay-Russell, S., ve Tanofsky-Kraff, M. (2019). Loss-of-control eating and obesity among children and adolescents. Current Obesity Reports, 8(1), 33-42.
17. Cahill, L., Babinsky, R., Markowitsch, H. J., ve McGaugh, J. L. (1995). The amygdala and emotional memory. Nature, 377(6547).
18. Caspi, A., ve Moffitt, T. E. (2018). All for one and one for all: Mental disorders in one dimension. American Journal of Psychiatry, 175(9), 831-844.
19. Castellanos-Ryan, N., Brière, F. N., O'Leary-Barrett, M., Banaschewski, T., Bokde, A., Bromberg, U., ... ve Garavan, H. (2016). The structure of psychopathology in adolescence and its common personality and cognitive correlates. Journal of abnormal psychology, 125(8), 1039.
20. Choudhury, S., Blakemore, S. J., ve Charman, T. (2006). Social cognitive development during adolescence. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience, 1(3), 165-174.
21. Cicchetti, D., ve Rogosch, F. A. (2002). A developmental psychopathology perspective on adolescence. Journal Of Consulting And Clinical Psychology, 70(1), 6.
22. Clark, I. A., ve Mackay, C. E. (2015). Mental imagery and post-traumatic stress disorder: a neuroimaging and experimental psychopathology approach to intrusive memories of trauma. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 6, 104.
23. Clemenson, G. D., Henningfield, C. M., ve Stark, C. (2019). Improving hippocampal memory through the experience of a rich Minecraft environment. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 13, 57.
24. Cohen, N. J., ve Squire, L. R. (1980). Preserved learning and retention of pattern-analyzing skill in amnesia: Dissociation of knowing how and knowing that. Science, 210(4466), 207-210.
25. Coles, M. E., Frost, R. O., Heimberg, R. G., ve Rhéaume, J. (2003). “Not just right experiences”: perfectionism, obsessive–compulsive features and general psychopathology. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(6), 681-700.
26. Colombo, D., Serino, S., Tuena, C., Pedroli, E., Dakanalis, A., Cipresso, P., ve Riva, G. (2017). Egocentric and allocentric spatial reference frames in aging: A systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 80, 605-621.
27. Costello, E. J., Copeland, W., ve Angold, A. (2011). Trends in psychopathology across the adolescent years: what changes when children become adolescents, and when adolescents become adults?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(10), 1015-1025.
28. Davies, M. (2010). Double dissociation: Understanding its role in cognitive neuropsychology. Mind & Language, 25(5), 500-540.
29. Diamond, M. C., Krech, D., ve Rosenzweig, M. R. (1964). The effects of an enriched environment on the histology of the rat cerebral cortex. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 123(1), 111-119.
30. Diamond, M. C., Law, F. A. Y., Rhodes, H., Lindner, B., Rosenzweig, M. R., Krech, D., ve Bennett, E. L. (1966). Increases in cortical depth and glia numbers in rats subjected to enriched environment. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 128(1), 117-125.
31. Duffy, S. N., Craddock, K. J., Abel, T., ve Nguyen, P. V. (2001). Environmental enrichment modifies the PKA-dependence of hippocampal LTP and improves hippocampus-dependent memory. Learning ve Memory, 8(1), 26-34.
32. Dziuk, M. A., Larson, J. G., Apostu, A., Mahone, E. M., Denckla, M. B., ve Mostofsky, S. H. (2007). Dyspraxia in autism: association with motor, social, and communicative deficits. Developmental Medicine ve Child Neurology, 49(10), 734-739.
33. El Khoury-Malhame, M., Reynaud, E., Soriano, A., Michael, K., Salgado-Pineda, P., Zendjidjian, X., ... ve Samuelian, J. C. (2011). Amygdala activity correlates with attentional bias in PTSD. Neuropsychologia, 49(7), 1969-1973.
34. Elliott, A. E., ve Packard, M. G. (2008). Intra-amygdala anxiogenic drug infusion prior to retrieval biases rats towards the use of habit memory. Neurobiology Of Learning And Memory, 90(4), 616-623.
35. Ertan, T. (2008). Psikiyatrik bozukluklarin epidemiyolojisi. Türkiye'de Sık Karşılaşılan Psikiyatrik Hastaliklar Sempozyumu (Eds M Uğur, İ Balcıoğlu, N Kocabaşoğlu), 25-30.
36. Fanselow, M. S., ve LeDoux, J. E. (1999). Why we think plasticity underlying Pavlovian fear conditioning occurs in the basolateral amygdala. Neuron, 23(2), 229-232.
37. Feinstein, A. R. (1970). The pre-therapeutic classification of co-morbidity in chronic disease. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 23(7), 455-468.
38. Ferry, B., Roozendaal, B., ve McGaugh, J. L. (1999). Role of norepinephrine in mediating stress hormone regulation of long-term memory storage: a critical involvement of the amygdala. Biological Psychiatry, 46(9), 1140-1152.
39. Gabrieli, J. D., Fleischman, D. A., Keane, M. M., Reminger, S. L., ve Morrell, F. (1995). Double dissociation between memory systems underlying explicit and implicit memory in the human brain. Psychological Science, 6(2), 76-82.
40. Gasbarri, A., Pompili, A., Packard, M. G., ve Tomaz, C. (2014). Habit learning and memory in mammals: behavioral and neural characteristics. Neurobiology of Learning And Memory, 114, 198-208.
41. Gaze, C., Kepley, H. O., ve Walkup, J. T. (2006). Co-occurring psychiatric disorders in childrenand adolescents with Tourette syndrome. Journal of Child Neurology, 21(8), 657-664.
42. Ghisi, M., Chiri, L. R., Marchetti, I., Sanavio, E., ve Sica, C. (2010). In search of specificity: “Not just right experiences” and obsessive–compulsive symptoms in non-clinical and clinical Italian individuals. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 24(8), 879-886
43. Ghosh, S., Laxmi, T. R., ve Chattarji, S. (2013). Functional connectivity from the amygdala to the hippocampus grows stronger after stress. Journal of Neuroscience, 33(17), 7234-7244.
44. Giedd, J. N. (2008). The Teen Brain: Insights from Neuroimaging. In Journal of Adolescent Health (Vol. 42, Issue 4, pp. 335–343). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2008.01.007
45. Glisky, E. L., Polster, M. R., ve Routhieaux, B. C. (1995). Double dissociation between item and source memory. Neuropsychology, 9(2), 229.
46. Godart, N. T., Perdereau, F., Rein, Z., Berthoz, S., Wallier, J., Jeammet, P., ve Flament, M. F. (2007). Comorbidity studies of eating disorders and mood disorders. Critical review of the literature. Journal of Affective Disorders, 97(1-3), 37-49.
47. Goh, S., ve Peterson, B. S. (2012). Imaging evidence for disturbances in multiple learning and memory systems in persons with autism spectrum disorders. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 54(3), 208-213.
48. Goodman, J., Leong, K. C., ve Packard, M. G. (2012). Emotional modulation of multiple memory systems: implications for the neurobiology of post-traumatic stress disorder. Reviews in the Neurosciences, 23(5-6), 627-643.
49. Goodman, J., Marsh, R., Peterson, B. S., ve Packard, M. G. (2014). Annual research review: the neurobehavioral development of multiple memory systems–implications for childhood and adolescent psychiatric disorders. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(6), 582-610.
50. Gottlieb, B. H. (Ed.). (2013). Coping with chronic stress. Springer Science ve Business Media.
51. Graf, P., ve Schacter, D. L. (1985). Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, memory, and cognition, 11(3), 501.
52. Greenough, W. T., ve Volkmar, F. R. (1973). Pattern of dendritic branching in occipital cortex of rats reared in complex environments. Experimental neurology, 40(2), 491-504.
53. Hermer, L., ve Spelke, E. S. (1994). A geometric process for spatial reorientation in young children. Nature, 370(6484), 57.
54. Hirschtritt, M. E., Lee, P. C., Pauls, D. L., Dion, Y., Grados, M. A., Illmann, C., ... ve Cath, D. C. (2015). Lifetime prevalence, age of risk, and genetic relationships of comorbid psychiatric disorders in Tourette syndrome. JAMA psychiatry, 72(4), 325-333.
55. Holmes, E. A., James, E. L., Coode-Bate, T., ve Deeprose, C. (2009). Can playing the computer game “Tetris” reduce the build-up of flashbacks for trauma? A proposal from cognitive science. PloS one, 4(1).
56. Holmes, E. A., James, E. L., Kilford, E. J., ve Deeprose, C. (2010). Key steps in developing a cognitive vaccine against traumatic flashbacks: Visuospatial Tetris versus verbal Pub Quiz. Plos One, 5(11).
57. Hu, Q., Yang, Y., Huang, Z., ve Shao, Y. (2018). Children and adults prefer the egocentric representation to the allocentric representation. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1522.
58. Iaria, G., Petrides, M., Dagher, A., Pike, B., Bohbot, V., 2003. Cognitive strategies dependent on the hippocampus and caudate nucleus in human navigation: variability and change with practice. J. Neurosci. 23, 5945–5952.
59. Iglói, K., Zaoui, M., Berthoz, A., ve Rondi‐Reig, L. (2009). Sequential egocentric strategy is acquired as early as allocentric strategy: Parallel acquisition of these two navigation strategies. Hippocampus, 19(12), 1199-1211.
60. Jacobs, B., Schall, M., ve Scheibel, A. B. (1993). A quantitative dendritic analysis of Wernicke's area in humans. II. Gender, hemispheric, and environmental factors. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 327(1), 97-111.
61. James, E. L., Lau-Zhu, A., Tickle, H., Horsch, A., ve Holmes, E. A. (2016). Playing the computer game Tetris prior to viewing traumatic film material and subsequent intrusive memories: Examining proactive interference. Journal Of Behavior Therapy And Experimental Psychiatry, 53, 25-33.
62. Johnson, M. H. (2015). Developmental neuroscience, psychophysiology, and genetics. Developmental science: an advanced textbook (pp.217-260) Psychology Press, Taylor ve Francis Group.
63. Jones, C. R., Happé, F., Pickles, A., Marsden, A. J., Tregay, J., Baird, G., ... ve Charman, T. (2011). ‘Everyday memory’impairments in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 41(4), 455-464.
64. Juster, R. P., McEwen, B. S., ve Lupien, S. J. (2010). Allostatic load biomarkers of chronic stress and impact on health and cognition. Neuroscience ve Biobehavioral Reviews, 35(1), 2-16.
65. Kaler, S. R., ve Freeman, B. J. (1994). Analysis of environmental deprivation: Cognitive and social development in Romanian orphans. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(4), 769- 781.
66. Keel, P. K., Klump, K. L., Miller, K. B., McGue, M., ve Iacono, W. G. (2005). Shared transmission of eating disorders and anxiety disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 38(2), 99-105.
67. Kessler, R. C., Berglund, P., Demler, O., Jin, R., Merikangas, K. R., ve Walters, E. E. (2005). Lifetime prevalence and age-of-onset distributions of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. Archives of general psychiatry, 62(6), 593-602.
68. Kim, J. J., Lee, H. J., Han, J. S., ve Packard, M. G. (2001). Amygdala is critical for stress-induced modulation of hippocampal long-term potentiation and learning. Journal of Neuroscience, 21(14), 5222-5228.
69. Kim, J. J., ve Diamond, D. M. (2002). The stressed hippocampus, synaptic plasticity and lost memories. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3(6), 453.
70. Kleim, J. A., ve Jones, T. A. (2008). Principles of Experience-Dependent Neural Plasticity: Implications for Rehabilitation After Brain Damage. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 51, S225-S239.
71. Klingberg, T. (2014). Childhood cognitive development as a skill. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 18(11), 573-579.
72. Klinger, L. G., Klinger, M. R., ve Pohlig, R. L. (2007). Implicit learning impairments in autism spectrum disorders. New developments in autism: The future is today, 76-103.
73. Kolb, B., ve Whishaw, I. Q. (1998). Brain plasticity and behavior. Annual Review of Psychology, 49(1), 43-64.
74. Kotov, R., Ruggero, C. J., Krueger, R. F., Watson, D., Yuan, Q., ve Zimmerman, M. (2011). New dimensions in the quantitative classification of mental illness. Archives of General Psychiatry, 68(10), 1003-1011.
75. Krueger, R. F., ve Markon, K. E. (2006). Reinterpreting comorbidity: A model-based approach to understanding and classifying psychopathology. Annu. Rev. Clin. Psychol., 2, 111-133.
76. Landau, B., ve Spelke, E. (1988). Geometric complexity and object search in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 24(4), 512
77. Leal-Galicia, P., Castañeda-Bueno, M., Quiroz-Baez, R., ve Arias, C. (2008). Long-term exposure to environmental enrichment since youth prevents recognition memory decline and increases synaptic plasticity markers in aging. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 90(3), 511-518.
78. Lehto, J. E., Juujärvi, P., Kooistra, L., ve Pulkkinen, L. (2003). Dimensions of executive functioning: Evidence from children. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(1), 59-80.
79. Levesque, R. J. (2011). Brain Maturation. Encyclopedia of Adolescence, 350-352.
80. Livingston, R. B. (1966). Brain mechanisms in conditioning and learning. Neurosciences Research Program Bulletin 4(3), 349-354.
81. Maj, M. (2005). ‘Psychiatric comorbidity’: an artefact of current diagnostic systems?. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 186(3), 182-184.
82. Maren, S. (2003). The Amygdala, Synaptic Plasticity, and Fear Memory. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 985, 106-113.
83. Maren, S., Phan, K. L., ve Liberzon, I. (2013). The contextual brain: implications for fear conditioning, extinction and psychopathology. Nature reviews. Neuroscience, 14(6), 417–428. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3492
84. Markarian, Y., Larson, M. J., Aldea, M. A., Baldwin, S. A., Good, D., Berkeljon, A., ... ve McKay, D. (2010). Multiple pathways to functional impairment in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(1), 78-88.
85. Marsh, R., Alexander, G. M., Packard, M. G., Zhu, H., Wingard, J. C., Quackenbush, G., ve Peterson, B. S. (2004). Habit learning in Tourette syndrome: a translational neuroscience approach to a developmental psychopathology. Archives of General Psychiatry, 61(12), 1259-1268.
86. Mason, G., Clubb, R., Latham, N., ve Vickery, S. (2007). Why and how should we use environmental enrichment to tackle stereotypic behaviour?. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102(3-4), 163- 188.
87. McDonald, R. J., Devan, B. D., ve Hong, N. S. (2004). Multiple memory systems: the power of interactions. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 82(3), 333-346.
88. McDonald, R. J., ve White, N. M. (1993). A Triple Dissociation of Memory Systems: Hippocampus, Amygdala, and Dorsal Striatum. Behavioral Neuroscience, 107(1), 3-22.
89. McEwen, B. S. (2008). Central effects of stress hormones in health and disease: Understanding the protective and damaging effects of stress and stress mediators. European Journal of Pharmacology, 583(2-3), 174-185.
90. McGaugh, J. L. (2004). The amygdala modulates the consolidation of memories of emotionally arousing experiences. Annu. Rev. Neurosci., 27, 1-28.
91. Menzies, L., Chamberlain, S. R., Laird, A. R., Thelen, S. M., Sahakian, B. J., ve Bullmore, E. T. (2008). Integrating evidence from neuroimaging and neuropsychological studies of obsessive- compulsive disorder: the orbitofronto-striatal model revisited. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(3), 525–549. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2007.09.005
92. Murty, V. P., Calabro, F., ve Luna, B. (2016). The role of experience in adolescent cognitive development: Integration of executive, memory, and mesolimbic systems. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 46-58.
93. Myers, A. J., ve Bjorklund, D. F. (2015). The development of cognitive abilities. Developmental Science: an advanced textbook (pp. 399-450). Psychology Press, Taylor ve Francis Group (2015)
94. Nelson, C., Bloom, F., Cameron, J., Amaral, D., Dahl, R., ve Pine, D. (2002). An integrative, multidisciplinary approach to the study of brain–behavior relations in the context of typical and atypical development. Development and Psychopathology, 14(3), 499-520. doi:10.1017/S0954579402003061
95. Newberry, R. C. (1995). Environmental enrichment: increasing the biological relevance of captive environments. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 44(2-4), 229-243.
96. Newcombe, N. S., ve Huttenlocher, J. (2003). Making space: The development of spatial representation and reasoning. MIT Press.
97. Overman, W. H., Pate, B. J., Moore, K., ve Peuster, A. (1996). Ontogeny of place learning in children as measured in the radial arm maze, Morris search task, and open field task. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110(6), 1205.
98. Packard, M. G. (2009). Anxiety, cognition, and habit: a multiple memory systems perspective. Brain Research, 1293, 121-128.
99. Packard, M. G., ve Goodman, J. (2012). Emotional arousal and multiple memory systems in the mammalian brain. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 6, 14.
100. Packard, M. G., ve McGaugh, J. L. (1992). Double dissociation of fornix and caudate nucleus lesions on acquisition of two water maze tasks: further evidence for multiple memory systems. Behavioral neuroscience, 106(3), 439.
101. Packard, M. G., ve Teather, L. A. (1997). Double dissociation of hippocampal and dorsal-striatal memory systems by posttraining intracerebral injections of 2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid. Behavioral neuroscience, 111(3), 543.
102. Packard, M. G., ve Teather, L. A. (1998). Amygdala modulation of multiple memory systems: hippocampus and caudate-putamen. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 69(2), 163-203.
103. Packard, M. G., ve Wingard, J. C. (2004). Amygdala and “emotional” modulation of the relative use of multiple memory systems. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 82(3), 243-252.
104. Parnas, J., Sass, L. A., ve Zahavi, D. (2013). Rediscovering psychopathology: the epistemology and phenomenology of the psychiatric object. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 39(2), 270-277.
105. Paus, T., Keshavan, M., ve Giedd, J. N. (2008). Why do many psychiatric disorders emerge during adolescence?. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(12), 947-957.
106. Phelps, E. A. (2004). Human emotion and memory: interactions of the amygdala and hippocampal complex. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 14(2), 198-202.
107. Piaget, J. (1952). The origins of intelligence in children. New York: Norton.
108. Poldrack, R. A., ve Packard, M. G. (2003). Competition among multiple memory systems: converging evidence from animal and human brain studies. Neuropsychologia, 41(3), 245-251.
109. Rodgers, M. K., Sindone III, J. A., ve Moffat, S. D. (2012). Effects of age on navigation strategy. Neurobiology of Aging, 33(1), 202-215.
110. Roozendaal, B., Barsegyan, A., ve Lee, S. (2007). Adrenal stress hormones, amygdala activation, and memory for emotionally arousing experiences. Progress in Brain Research, 167, 79-97.
111. Roozendaal, B., Brunson, K. L., Holloway, B. L., McGaugh, J. L., ve Baram, T. Z. (2002). Involvement of stress-released corticotropin-releasing hormone in the basolateral amygdala in regulating memory consolidation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 99(21), 13908-13913.
112. Roozendaal, B., McEwen, B. S., ve Chattarji, S. (2009). Stress, memory and the amygdala. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 10(6), 423-433.
113. Rosenkranz, J. A., Venheim, E. R., ve Padival, M. (2010). Chronic stress causes amygdala hyperexcitability in rodents. Biological psychiatry, 67(12), 1128-1136.
114. Routh, D. K. (1990). Taxonomy in developmental psychopathology. In Handbook of developmental psychopathology (pp. 53-62). Springer, Boston, MA.
115. Ruggiero, G., D’Errico, O., ve Iachini, T. (2016). Development of egocentric and allocentric spatial representations from childhood to elderly age. Psychological Research, 80(2), 259-272.
116. Rutter, M. (2013). Developmental psychopathology: A paradigm shift or just a relabeling? Development and psychopathology, 25(4pt2), 1201-1213.
117. Sampedro-Piquero, P., ve Begega, A. (2017). Environmental enrichment as a positive behavioral intervention across the lifespan. Current neuropharmacology, 15(4), 459-470.
118. Schwabe, L., ve Wolf, O. T. (2013). Stress and multiple memory systems: from ‘thinking’ to ‘doing’. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(2), 60-68.
119. Scoville, W. B., ve Milner, B. (1957). Loss of recent memory after bilateral hippocampal lesions. Journal of neurology, neurosurgery, and psychiatry, 20(1), 11.
120. Seress, L. (2001). Morphological changes of the human hippocampal formation from midgestation to early childhood. Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience, 45-58.
121. Sheth, C., McGlade, E., ve Yurgelun-Todd, D. (2017). Chronic stress in adolescents and its neurobiological and psychopathological consequences: an RDoC perspective. Chronic Stress, 1, 2470547017715645.
122. Shin, L. M., Rauch, S. L., ve Pitman, R. K. (2006). Amygdala, medial prefrontal cortex, and hippocampal function in PTSD. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1071(1), 67-79.
123. Smith, E. E., ve Kosslyn, S. M. (2013). Cognitive psychology: pearson new international edition: mind and brain. Pearson Higher Ed.
124. Solinas, M., Thiriet, N., Chauvet, C., ve Jaber, M. (2010). Prevention and treatment of drug addiction by environmental enrichment. Progress in Neurobiology, 92(4), 572-592.
125. Soto-Icaza, P., Aboitiz, F., ve Billeke, P. (2015). Development of social skills in children: neural and behavioral evidence for the elaboration of cognitive models. Frontiers in neuroscience, 9, 333.
126. Sroufe, L. A. (2013). The promise of developmental psychopathology: Past and present. Development and Psychopathology, 25(4pt2), 1215-1224.
127. Steidl, S., Mohi-uddin, S., ve Anderson, A. K. (2006). Effects of emotional arousal on multiple memory systems: Evidence from declarative and procedural learning. Learning ve Memory, 13, 650– 658.
128. Steidl, S., Razik, F., ve Anderson, A. K. (2011). Emotion enhanced retention of cognitive skill learning. Emotion, 11, 12–19.
129. Steinberg, L., Dahl, R., Keating, D., Kupfer, D. J., Masten, A. S., ve Pine, D. S. (2015). The Study of Developmental Psychopathology in Adolescence: Integrating Affective Neuroscience with the Study of Context. In Developmental Neuroscience (pp. 710-741). John Wiley and Sons Ltd.
130. Tanner, J. L. (2011). Emerging Adulthood. Encyclopedia of adolescence, 818-825.
131. Teuber, H. L. (1955). Physiological psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 6(1), 267-296.
132. Thompson, P. M., Vidal, C., Giedd, J. N., Gochman, P., Blumenthal, J., Nicolson, R., ... ve Rapoport, J. L. (2001). Mapping adolescent brain change reveals dynamic wave of accelerated gray matter loss in very early-onset schizophrenia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(20), 11650-11655.
133. Tolman, E. C. (1948). Cognitive maps in rats and men. Psychological Review, 55(4), 189.
134. Van Loo, H. M., ve Romeijn, J. W. (2015). Psychiatric comorbidity: fact or artifact?. Theoretical Medicine and Bioethics, 36(1), 41-60.
135. Visser, R. M., Lau-Zhu, A., Henson, R. N., ve Holmes, E. A. (2018). Multiple memory systems, multiple time points: how science can inform treatment to control the expression of unwanted emotional memories. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 373(1742), 20170209.
136. Vyas, A., Mitra, R., Rao, B. S., ve Chattarji, S. (2002). Chronic stress induces contrasting patterns of dendritic remodeling in hippocampal and amygdaloid neurons. Journal of Neuroscience, 22(15), 6810-6818.
137. West, R. L., Crook, T. H., ve Barron, K. L. (1992). Everyday memory performance across the life span: Effects of age and noncognitive individual differences. Psychology and Aging, 7(1), 72.
138. Whitford, T. J., Rennie, C. J., Grieve, S. M., Clark, C. R., Gordon, E., ve Williams, L. M. (2007). Brain maturation in adolescence: concurrent changes in neuroanatomy and neurophysiology. Human Brain Mapping, 28(3), 228-237.
139. Willcutt, E. G., Sonuga-Barke, E. J., Nigg, J. T., ve Sergeant, J. A. (2008). Recent developments in neuropsychological models of childhood psychiatric disorders. In Biological Child Psychiatry (Vol. 24, pp. 195-226). Karger Publishers.
140. Wingard, J. C., ve Packard, M. G. (2008). The amygdala and emotional modulation of competition between cognitive and habit memory. Behavioural Brain Research, 193(1), 126-131.
141. Winocur, G., Moscovitch, M., ve Stuss, D. T. (1996). Explicit and implicit memory in the elderly: Evidence for double dissociation involving medial temporal-and frontal-lobe functions. Neuropsychology, 10(1), 57.
142. Wolbers, T., ve Hegarty, M. (2010). What determines our navigational abilities?. Trends in cognitive sciences, 14(3), 138-146.
143. Wolf, O. T. (2008). The influence of stress hormones on emotional memory: relevance for psychopathology. Acta Psychologica, 127(3), 513-531.
144. Zimmerman, M., ve Mattia, J. I. (1999). Psychiatric diagnosis in clinical practice: is comorbidity being missed?. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 40(3), 182-191.