“Neither ‘Islam’ nor ‘Muslim’ is a Race”: Islamophobia, Racism and Freedom of Expression

Yıl 2023, Sayı: 49, 595 - 625, 30.04.2023

Muhammed Babacan

https://doi.org/10.28949/bilimname.1228143

Öz

There are objections to the definition of Islamophobia as a form of racism. Objections center around two main themes of Islamophobia: “Islam” and “Muslims”. Some detractors argue that the former should not be given protection against various debates and criticisms that should be considered legitimate within the scope of freedom of expression. They assert that statements such as “Muhammad is a pedophile and married a nine-year-old girl”, “Islam was spread by the sword” or “Wearing the veil dehumanizes, humiliates and objectifies women” should be considered as theological debates that should be seen as legitimate within the scope of freedom of expression and that these rights of criticism should not be restricted by defining Islamophobia as a form of racism. For others, the latter cannot be considered a racial minority because being a Muslim is a religious identity that is seen as being voluntarily chosen. While this approach regards gender and racial identities as innate or involuntary identity categories, it assumes that being a Muslim is related to one's own will and therefore Muslims need or should have much less legal protection than these other identity categories. This paper argues that definitions other than racism would miss a vital issue, one that helps capture and understand how Muslims and those who are simply perceived as being Muslim are excluded, subordinated, and exploited with reference to phenotypical and cultural differences. This is the issue of racialization of Muslims. This study aims to explore the following questions: What should be the legal limit of freedom of expression? Is it possible to distinguish Islamophobia from reasonable criticism of Muslims and Islam? Does racism really depend on the actual existence of races? If the hostility to Islam and Muslims can be regarded as a form of racism, then, what kind of racism might it be? What are its specific qualities, how does it function? How have Muslims been racialized? To answer these questions, this paper draws on a study of Islamophobia experiences of thirty-nine first and second-generation young Turks aged between 18-35 in London in 2019. I aimed to recruit respondents that were diverse enough to represent the variation known to exist in the Turkish community of London. I selected the semi-structured in-depth interview method as the means by which the data would be collected. I employed thematic analysis to identify and analyse patterns of meaning in the dataset. This study has made clear that Muslims are racialized not based on biological or phenotypical features, but also ethnic and cultural features. I argue that making sweeping generalizations is more likely to be Islamophobic. One should have the right to critique ideologies and religions, but the manner and decorum in which individuals express themselves are vital. The speech should not intentionally demonize a religion, or humiliate, devalue, or stigmatize a diverse group of people. Moreover, being Muslim is not a racial identity reflects the idea that race is the pre-condition for racism and confines racism to a narrow understanding. Every racism, whether biological or cultural, is cultural in its essence and the main target is cultural, social, and religious differences attributed to bodies (individuals). Therefore, perceived religious affiliation rather than religion itself is at the center of anti-Muslim racism. Regardless of physical appearance, nationality, ethnicity, or economic situation, Muslims are homogenized, humiliated, and marginalized through Islamophobic discourse and practices in their daily lives. This article contributes to a better understanding of why Islamophobia should be evaluated as a form of racism. It is hoped that in assessing the discourse and behavior towards Islam and Muslims, the focus will be shifted from everyday political debate or hostility to religion, fear of religion, anti-Muslim hatred, and prejudice to the fact that Muslims are racialized.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Islamophobia, racism, racialization, Islam, Muslims, Cultural racism, Freedom of expression, United Kingdom

Destekleyen Kurum

The Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education

Teşekkür

I would like to thank the Republic of Turkey Ministry of National Education for the financial support that made this research possible. I am also indebted to Professor Tariq Modood for his constructive feedback, and invaluable advice on this paper.

“İslam da Müslüman da Bir Irk Değildir”: İslamofobi, Irkçılık ve İfade Özgürlüğü

Öz

İslamofobi’nin bir ırkçılık biçimi olarak tanımlanmasına itirazlar var. İtirazlar, İslamofobi'nin iki ana teması etrafında şekilleniyor: "İslam" ve "Müslümanlar". Bazı muhalifler, ifade özgürlüğü kapsamında meşru sayılması gereken çeşitli tartışma ve eleştirilere karşı “İslam”ın korunmaması gerektiğini savunuyorlar. “Muhammed sübyancıdır ve dokuz yaşında bir kızla evlenmiştir”, “İslam kılıçla yayılmıştır”, “Örtünmek kadınları insanlıktan çıkarır, aşağılar, nesneleştirir” gibi ifadelerin ifade özgürlüğü kapsamında meşru görülmesi gereken teolojik tartışmalar bağlamında değerlendirilmesi gerektiği ileri sürülür. Dolayısıyla, bu eleştiri haklarının İslamofobi’nin bir ırkçılık biçimi olarak tanımlanmasıyla sınırlandırılmaması gerektiği vurgulanır. Diğerleri için, “Müslümanlar” ırksal bir azınlık olarak kabul edilemez çünkü Müslüman olmak, gönüllü olarak seçilen dini bir kimliktir. Bu yaklaşım, cinsiyet ve ırksal kimlikleri doğuştan veya istem dışı kimlik kategorileri olarak kabul ederken, Müslüman olmanın kişinin kendi iradesine bağlı olduğunu ve bu nedenle Müslümanların bu diğer kimlik kategorilerine göre çok daha az yasal korumaya ihtiyacı olduğunu veya olması gerektiğini varsayar. Bu makale, ırkçılık dışındaki tanımların, Müslümanların ve Müslüman olarak algılananların fenotipik ve kültürel farklılıklara atıfta bulunularak nasıl dışlandığını, tabi kılındığını ve sömürüldüğünü yakalamaya ve anlamaya yardımcı olan hayati bir konuyu gözden kaçıracağını savunuyor. Bu, Müslümanların ırksallaştırılması meselesidir. Bu makale şu soruları keşfetmeyi amaçlamaktadır: İfade özgürlüğünün yasal sınırı ne olmalıdır? İslamofobi’yi Müslümanlara ve İslam'a yönelik makul eleştirilerden ayırmak mümkün mü? Irkçılık gerçekten de ırkların gerçek varlığına mı bağlı? İslam ve Müslüman düşmanlığı bir ırkçılık olarak değerlendirilebilirse, bu nasıl bir ırkçılık olabilir? Spesifik nitelikleri nelerdir, nasıl çalışır? Müslümanlar nasıl ırksallaştırıldı? Bu soruları cevaplamak için, 2019 yılında Londra'da yaşları 18-35 arasında değişen otuz dokuz birinci ve ikinci nesil genç Türk'ün İslamofobi deneyimleri üzerine yapılan bir çalışmadan yararlanılmıştır. Londra'daki Türk toplumunda var olduğu bilinen çeşitliliği temsil edecek kadar farklı katılımcılar bulmayı amaçladım. Verilerin toplanma aracı olarak yarı yapılandırılmış derinlemesine görüşme yöntemini seçtim. Veri kümesindeki anlam kalıplarını belirlemek ve analiz etmek için tematik analiz kullandım. Britanya'daki genç Türklerin ırksallaştırılması süreci, Müslümanların sadece biyolojik veya fenotipik özelliklere göre değil, aynı zamanda etnik ve kültürel özelliklere göre de ırksallaştırıldığını göstermektedir. İdeolojileri ve dinleri eleştirme hakkına sahip olunmalıdır, ancak bireylerin kendilerini ifade etme tarzları ve adaba uygun hareket etmeleri hayati önem taşır. İfadeler kasıtlı olarak bir dini şeytanlaştırmamalı veya farklı bir grup insanı aşağılamamalı, değerini düşürmemeli veya damgalamamalıdır. Ayrıca Müslüman olmanın ırksal bir kimlik olmadığı iddiası, ırkın ırkçılığın ön koşulu olduğu fikrini yansıtır ve ırkçılığı dar bir anlayışa hapseder. Biyolojik ya da kültürel her ırkçılık özünde kültüreldir ve asıl hedefi bedenlere (bireylere) atfedilen kültürel, toplumsal ve dinsel farklılıklardır. Bu nedenle, Müslüman karşıtı ırkçılığın merkezinde dinin kendisinden ziyade algılanan dini mensubiyet yer almaktadır. Müslümanlar, fiziksel görünümleri, milliyetleri, etnik kökenleri veya ekonomik durumları ne olursa olsun, günlük yaşamlarında İslamofobik söylem ve uygulamalarla homojenleştirilmekte, aşağılanmakta ve ötekileştirilmektedir. Bu makale, İslamofobi’nin neden bir ırkçılık biçimi olarak değerlendirilmesi gerektiğinin daha iyi anlaşılmasına katkıda bulunmaktadır. İslam'a ve Müslümanlara yönelik söylem ve davranışlar değerlendirilirken, odağın günlük siyasi tartışmalardan, din düşmanlığından, din korkusundan, Müslümanlara yönelik nefret ve önyargıdan çok daha hayati bir konu olan Müslümanların ırksallaştırıldığı gerçeğine kaydırılması umulmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

İslamofobi, ırkçılık, ırksallaştırma, İslam, Müslümanlar, Kültürel Irkçılık, İfade Özgürlüğü, İngiltere

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