Geç Neolitik Dönem Halaf Kültürü’nde Sanat ve Sembolizm

Yıl 2024, , 34 - 52, 30.06.2024

Bahattin İpek , Mehmet Şan , Mekiye Eksik

https://doi.org/10.47130/bitlissos.1447395

Öz

Yakın Doğu'da Çanak Çömleksiz Neolitik Dönem yerleşim yerlerinde ortaya çıkarılan anıtsal yapılar (Jeriko, Mureybet, Jerf el-Ahmar, Göbeklitepe, Karahantepe vb.), kil sıvalı kafatasları, taş veya kemikten yapılmış objelerin dönemin tasvir sanatını veya dini ritüellerini temsil ettiği düşünülmektedir. Fakat Neolitiğ’in geç evresi olarak bilinen Çanak Çömlekli Neolitik Dönem’de, Göbeklitepe ve yakın çevresinden de tanıdığımız baskın anıtsal mimari olarak anılan yapıların artık Yakındoğu'da kullanılmadığı görülmektedir. Kuzey Mezopotamya kültürleri olarak bilinen Hassuna, Samarra ve özellikle Halaf kültürleri Çanak Çömlekli Neolitik Dönem kültürel ve sosyo-ekonomik yapıları hakkında önemli bilgiler vermektedir. Bu dönemde bilhassa çanak ve çömlekler veya mühürler üzerinde simgesel öğelerin yoğunlaştığı görülmektedir. Özellikle Halaf kültürüne ait kapların üzerindeki iki veya üç katlı yapıları betimleyen sahneler, başları gövdelerinden ayrık olan insanları içeren tasvirler, dans eden insan motifleri, boğa başları (bukranium) ve bitki motifleri Geç Neolitik Dönem sembolizmi ve sanatı hakkında daha detaylı bilgiler vermektedir. Bu çalışma, Kuzey Mezopotamya'daki Halaf kültürünün sosyo-kültürel ve ekonomik yapısı, Halaf çanak çömlekleri üzerinde yer alan sahnelerin dönemin sanatı veya dinini temsil ettiği düşünülen öğeleri hakkında bilgi vermeyi ve yeniden yorumlamayı amaçlamaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Geç Neolitik Dönem, Halaf Kültürü ve Çanak-Çömleği, Halaf Kültüründe Sanat ve Sembolizm

Art and Symbolism in the Halaf Culture in the Late Neolithic Period

Öz

The monumental structures uncovered in Pre-Pottery Neolithic Period settlements in Near East (Jericho, Mureybet, Jerf el-Ahmar, Göbeklitepe, Karahantepe, etc.), clay plastered skulls, objects made of stone or bone are thought to represent depiction of art or religious rituals of period. However, during Pottery Neolithic Period, known as the late stage of Neolithic Period, structures known as the dominant monumental architecture, are also known from Göbeklitepe and its vicinity, are now disappearing in the Near East. Hassuna, Samarra and Halaf cultures, which are known as North Mesopotamian cultures, give us important information about cultural and economic structures of Late Neolithic Period. In this period, it is seen that use of symbolic elements is intensified, especially on pottery or seals. During Halaf period, scenes depicting two or three storey structures, depictions of human with heads separated from their bodies, dancing human motifs, bull heads (bucranium), plant motifs on Halaf potteries give more detailed information about symbolism and art of Late Neolithic period. This study aims to give information about socio-cultural and economic structure of Halaf culture in North Mesopotamia, and to provide a reinterpretation of elements considered to represent art or religion during Halaf period.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Late Neolithic Period, Halaf Culture and its Pottery, Art and Symbolism in Halaf Culture

Kaynakça

• Akkermans, P. M. M. G., & Le Mière, M. (1992). The 1988 excavations at tell Sabi Abyad, a Later Neolithic village in northern Syria. American Journal of Archaeology, 96(1), 1-22.
• Akkermans, P. M. M. G., & Schwartz, G. M. (2003). The Archaeology of Syria: From Complex hunter-gatherers to early urban societies (ca.16,000-300 BC). Cambridge University Press.
• Akkermans, P.M.M.G. (1987). A Late Neolithic and early Halaf village at Sabi Abyad, Northern Syria. Paléorient, 13(1), 23-40.
• Akkermans, P.M.M.G. (1989). Halaf mortuary practices: A survey. Haex, O. M. C., Curvers, H. H. & Akkermans, P. M. M. G. (Editors), To the Euphrates and Beyond: Archaeological Studies in Honour of Maurits N. van Loon. (ss, 75-88). A. A. Balkema.
• Akkermans, P. M. M. G. (1991). New radiocarbon dates for the Later Neolithic of northern Syria. Paléorient, 17(1), 121-126.
• Akkermans, P.M.M.G. (2013a). Northern Syria in the Late Neolithic, ca. 6800–5300 BC. Orthmann, W., Matthiae, P. & al-Maqdissi, M. (Editörler), Archéologie et Histoire de la Syrie I: La Syrie de l’époque néolithique à l’âge du fer. (ss, 17-31). Harrassowitz Verlag.
• Akkermans, P.M.M.G. (2013b). Living Space, Temporality and Community Segmentation: Interpreting Late Neolithic Settlement in Northern Syria. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P.M.M.G. & Rogasch, J. (Editörler), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 63-75). Brepols Publisher.
• Anadolu Ajansı. (2024, 27 Şubat). https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/kultur-sanat/-domuztepe-hoyugunde-okculuga-dair-bulgulara-rastlandi-/1596589
• Atakuman, Ç. (2015a). Kuzey Mezopotamya Prehistoryası'nın Terminolojik Sorunlarına Tarihsel Bir Yaklaşım. APAD 1, 47-71.
• Atakuman, Ç. (2015b). From Monuments to Miniatures: Emergence of Stamps and Related Image Bearing Objects during the Neolithic. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 25(4), 759-788.
• Becker, J. (2013). Tell Halaf: New Results on the Late Neolithic Period. Northeastern Syria. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P.M.M.G. & Rogasch, J. (Editörler), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 455-466). Brepols Publisher.
• Bernbeck, R. & Nieuwenhuyse, O. (2013). Established Paradigms, Current Disputes and Emerging Themes: The State of Research on the Late Neolithic in Upper Mesopotamia. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P.M.M.G. & Rogasch, J. (Editörler), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 17-37). Brepols Publisher.
• Breniquet, C. (1991). Un site Halafien en Turquie meridionale: Tell Turlu. Akkadica, 71, 1-35.
• Butterlin, P. (2018). Architecture et société Au Proche-Orient Ancien: Les bâtisseurs de mémoire en Mésopotamie (7000-3000 av. J.-C.). Editions A&J Picard.
• Campbell, S. (1992). The Halaf Period in Iraq: Old Sites and New, The Biblical Archaeologist, 55(4): 182-187.
• Campbell, S. (1999). Archaeological Constructs and Past Reality on the Upper Euphrates. Lete, G. del-O. & Fenollos, J.L.M. (Editors), Archaeology of the Upper Syrian Euphrates the Tishrin Dam Area Proceedings of the International Symposium Held at Barcelona, January 28-30, 1998. (ss, 573-583). Editorial Ausa.
• Campbell, S. (2007). Rethinking Halaf Chronology. Paléorient 33(1), 103-136.
• Campbell, S. (2008a). Feasting and Dancing Gendered Representation and Pottery in Later Mesopotamian Prehistory. Diane Bolger, D. (Editor) Gender Through Time in the Ancient Near East. (ss. 53-76). AltaMira Press.
• Campbell, S. (2008b). The Dead and the Living in Late Neolithic Mesopotamia. Scienze dell' Antichità: Storia Archeologia Antropologia, 14(1), 125-140.
• Campbell, S. (2010). Understanding symbols: Putting meaning into the painted pottery of Prehistoric northern Mesopotamia. Bolger, D. & Maguire, L.C. (Editors), Development of Pre-State Communities in the Ancient Near East. (ss, 147-155). Oxbow Books.
• Campbell, S., Kansa, S.W., Bichener, R., & Lau, H. (2014). Burying things; Practices of cultural disposal at Late Neolithic Domuztepe, southeast Turkey. Porter, B.W. & Boutin, A.T. (Editors), Remembering the Dead in the Ancient Near East: Recent Contributions from Bioarchaeology and Mortuary Archaeology. (ss, 27-60). University of Colorado Press.
• Carter, E. & Campbell, S. (2006). Report on the 2004 excavation season at Domuztepe. Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı, 27(1), 313-324.
• Carter, E. & Campbell, S. (2008). The Domuztepe project, 2006. Kazı Sonuçları Toplantısı, 29(3), 123-136.
• Carter, E. (2012). On human and animal sacrifice in the Late Neolithic at Domuztepe. Porter, A. M. & Schwartz, G. M. (Editors), Sacred Killing: The Archaeology of Sacrifice in the Ancient Near East. (ss, 97-124). Eisenbrauns.
• Costello, S. K. (2013). Using imagery to interpret Late Neolithic religion. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P. M. M. G. & Rogasch, J. (Editors), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 117-124). Brepols Publisher.
• Cruells, W. (2004). The pottery. Tunca, Ö., Molist, M. & Cruells, W. (Editors), Tell Amarna (Syrie) I. La période de Halaf. (ss, 41-200). Peeters Publishers.
• Cruells, W. (2008). The Proto-Halaf: Origins, definition, regional framework and chronology. Córdoba, J. M., Molist, M., Pérez, M. C., Rubio, I. & Martínez, S. (Editors), Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, (Vol. III). (ss, 671-689). Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
• Cruells, W. (2013). La cerámica Halaf en Tell Halula (VII y VI milenios cal BC). Orígenes y desarrollo. Montaña, M. M. (Editor), Tell Halula: un poblado de los primeros agricultores en el valle del Éufrates, Siria. (ss. 59-211). Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte.
• Cruells, W. (2017). Transitions and their chronologies in the Pottery Neolithic of the Near East. Cruells, W., Mateiciucová, I. & Nieuwenhuyse, O. (Editors), Painting Pots-Painting People: Late Neolithic Ceramics in Ancient Mesopotamia. (ss, 11-29). Oxbow Books.
• Cruells, W., Gòmez, A., Bouso, M., Guerrero, E., Tornero, C., Saña, M., & Tunca, Ö. (2013). Chagar bazar in Northeastern Syria: Recent work. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P. M. M. G. & Rogasch, J. (Editors), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 467-477). Brepols Publisher.
• Davidson, T. E. (1977). Regional variation within the Halaf ceramic tradition [Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi]. University of Edinburgh.
• Erdalkıran, M. (2009). Halaf kapları üzerinde görülen hayvan motifleri. Haluk Sağlamtimur, H., Abay, E., Derin, Z., Erdem, A.Ü., Batmaz, A., Dedeoğlu, F., Erdalkıran, M., Baştürk, M. B. & Konakçı, E. (Editörler), Altan Çilingiroğlu'na Armağan. Yukarı Denizin Kıyısında Urartu Krallığı'na Adanmış Bir Hayat / Studies in Honour of Altan Çilingiroğlu. A Life Dedicated to Urartu on the Shores of the Upper Sea. (ss, 275-298). Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları.
• Erdem, D. (2013). Social context of small find distribution at Domuztepe; Ritual display and society [Unpublished PhD Thesis]. Middle East Technical University.
• Esin, U. (1999). Introduction. The Neolithic in Turkey: A general review. Özdoğan, M. & Başgelen, N. (Editörler), Neolithic in Turkey. The Cradle of Civilization. New Discoveries. (ss. 13-23). İstanbul: Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları.
• Frangipane, M. (2007). Different types of egalitarian societies and the development of inequality in early Mesopotamia. World Archaeology, 39(2), 151-176.
• Frangipane, M. (2013). Societies without boundaries: Interpreting late Neolithic patterns of wide interaction and sharing of cultural traits: The Case of the Halaf communities. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P. M. M. G. & Rogasch, J. (Editors), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 89-99). Brepols Publisher.
• Frankel, D. (1979). Archaeologists at work studies on Halaf pottery. British Museum Publications Ltd.
• Gallet, Y., Montaña, M. M., Genevey, A., García, X. C., Thébault, E., Bach, A. G., Goff, M. Le., Robert, B. & Nachasova, I. (2015). New Late Neolithic (c. 7000–5000 BC) Archeointensity data from Syria. Reconstructing 9000 Years of Archeomagnetic Field Intensity Variations in the Middle East. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors, 238, 89-103.
• Gessner, G .C. (2011). A brief overview of the Halaf tradition. Steadman, S. R. & Gregory McMahon, G. (Editors), The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia 10,000-323 B.C.E. (ss, 777-795). Oxford University Press.
• Gessner, G. C. (2013). Sequencing practices, revealing traditions: A case study on painters' brushwork. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P. M. M. G. & Rogasch, J. (Editors), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (s. 125-134). Brepols Publisher.
• Goff, B. L. (1963). Symbols of Prehistoric Mesopotamia. Yale University Press.
• Hijara, İ. (1997). The Halaf period in Northern Mesopotamia. Nabu Publications.
• Hijara, I. (1978). Three new graves at Arpachiyah. World Archaeology, 10(2), 125-128.
• Hijara, I. (1980). Arpachiyah 1976. Iraq, 42(2), 131-154.
• İpek, B. (2019). Figural Motifs on Halaf pottery: An iconographical study of Late Neolithic society in northern Mesopotamia [Unpublished Master's Thesis]. Bilkent Üniversitesi.
• Kansa, S. W., Kennedy, A., Campbell, S., & Carter, E. (2009). Resource exploitation at Late Neolithic Domuztepe: Faunal and botanical evidence. Current Anthropology, 50(6), 897-914.
• Le Mière, M. (2013). Uniformity and diversity of pottery in the Jazirah and the Northern Levant during the early pottery Neolithic Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P. M. M. G. & Rogasch, J. (Editors), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 323-330). Brepols Publisher.
• Mallowan, M. E. L. & Rose, J. C. (1935). Prehistoric assyria: Excavations at Tall Arpachiyah, 1933. Oxford University Press.
• Mallowan, M. E. L. (1936). The Excavations at Tall Chagar bazar, and an Archaeological survey of the Habur region, 1934-5. Iraq, 3(1), 1-85.
• Merpert, N. Y., & Munchaev, R. M. (1973). Early agricultural settlements in the Sinjar plain, Northern Iraq. Iraq, 35(2), 93-113.
• Merpert, N.Y., & Munchaev, R. M. (1987). The earliest levels at Yarim Tepe I and Yarim Tepe II in Northern Iraq. Iraq, 49, 1-36.
• Merpert, N. Y., & Munchaev, R. M. (1993). Yarım Tepe II: The Halaf levels. Yoffee, N. & Clark, J. J. (Editors), Early Stages in the Evolution of Mesopotamian Civilization: Soviet Excavations in Northern Iraq. (ss. 129-162). The University of Arizona Press.
• Nieuwenhuyse, O., & Cruells, W. (2004). The proto-Halaf Period in Syria. new sites, new data. Paléorient, 30(1), 47-68.
• Nieuwenhuyse, O. (2000). Halaf settlement in the Khabur Headwaters. Lyonnet, B. (Editor), Prospection Archéologique Haut-Khabur Occidental (Syrie du N.E.), (Vol. 1). (ss. 151-260). Institut Français d'Archéologie du Proche-Orient [IFAPO].
• Nieuwenhuyse, O. (2007). Plain and painted pottery: The rise of Neolithic ceramic styles on the Syrian and Northern Mesopotamian plains. Brepols Publishers.
• Nieuwenhuyse, O. (2008). Feasting in the steppe-Late Neolithic ceramic change and the rise of the Halaf. Córdoba, J. M., Molist, M., Pérez, M. C., Rubio, I. & Martínez, S. (Editors), Proceedings of the 5th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, (Vol. III). (ss, 691-708). Universidad Autónoma de Madrid.
• Nieuwenhuyse, O. (2009). The ‘painted pottery revolution’: Emulation, ceramic innovation and the early Halaf in Northern Syria. Astruc, L., Gaulon, A. & Salanova, L. (Editörler), Méthodes d’approche des premières productions céramiques: étude de cas dans les Balkans et au Levant. Table-ronde de la Maison de l’Archéologie et de l’Ethnologie (Nanterre, France) 28 février 2006. (ss, 81-91). Rahden/Westf.
• Nieuwenhuyse, O. (2013). The social uses of decorated ceramics in Late Neolithic upper Mesopotamia. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P. M. M. G. & Rogasch, J. (Editors), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 135-145). Brepols Publisher.
• Özbal, R. & Gerritsen, F. (2013). Burnishing, painting and fenestrating: Social uses of pottery at Tell Kurdu. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P. M. M. G. & Rogasch, J. (Editors), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 107-115). Brepols Publisher.
• Özdoğan, M. (1999). Concluding remarks. Özdoğan, M. & Başgelen, N. (Editors), Neolithic in Turkey. The Cradle of Civilization. New Discoveries. (ss, 225-236) Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları.
• Özdoğan, M. (2004). Neolitik Çağ-Neolitik devrim. İlk üretim toplulukları kavramının değişimi ve "Braindwoodlar"/Neolithic period-Neolithic Revolution-evolution of the concept and the "Braidwoods". TÜBA-AR, 7, 43-51.
• Özdoğan, M. (2007). Bazı genellemeler-öneriler. Özdoğan, M. & Başgelen, N. (Editörler), Anadolu'da Uygarlığın Doğuşu ve Avrupa'ya Yayılımı. Türkiye'de Neolitik Dönem Yeni Kazılar-Yeni Bulgular. (ss, 441-458). Arkeoloji ve Sanat Yayınları.
• Özdoğan, M. (2013). Reconsidering the Late Neolithic period in Southeastern Turkey: A regional perspective. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P. M. M. G. & Rogasch, J. (Editors), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 377-386). Brepols Publisher.
• Özdoğan, M. (2014). Anatolia: From the pre-pottery Neolithic to the end of the early Bronze Age (10.000-2000 BCE). Renfrew, C. (Editör), The Cambridge World Prehistory Volume 3: West and Central Asia and Europe. (ss, 1508-1544). Cambridge University Press.
• Sağlamtimur, H., & Ozan, A. (2007). Siirt-Türbe Höyük kazısı ön rapor (Excavations at Siirt-Türbe Höyük-preliminary report). Arkeoloji Dergisi, 2, 1-31.
• Sarıaltun, S. (2013). A Halaf settlement at Kerküşti Höyük. Nieuwenhuyse, O., Bernbeck, R., Akkermans, P.M.M.G. & Rogasch, J. (Editors), Interpreting the Late Neolithic of Upper Mesopotamia. (ss, 503-512). Brepols Publisher.
• Schmidt, H. (1943). Tell Halaf I: Die prahistorischen Funde. Walter de Gruyter.
• Sinopoli, C. M. (1991). Approaches to Archaeological ceramics. Plenum Press.
• Steinberg, A., & Kamilli, D.C. (1990). Paint and paste studies of selected Halaf sherds from Mesopotamia. Rice, P. M. (Editor). Pots and Potters Current Approaches in Ceramic Archaeology. (ss, 187-208). Institute of Archaeology University of California (Monograph XXIV).
• Tekin, H. (2012). Karavelyan Diyarbakır’da bir Halaf yerleşimi. Bezdan, M. (Editör), Aktüel Arkeoloji 26. (ss, 42-44). Pasifik Ofset.
• Tekin, H. (2013). Hakemi Use/Diyarbakır: Çiftçilerin Mührü. Karul, N. (Editör), Bereketli Hilal: Dicle'nin Kurtarma Kazıları. (ss, 62-69). ArkeoAtlas, 8. Apa Uniprint.
• Tekin, H. (2015). Yukarı Mezopotamya Geç Neolitiğinde (Hassuna, Samarra, Halaf) terminoloji ve kronoloji sorunları. APAD (Anadolu Prehistorya Araştırmaları Dergisi/ Journal of Anatolian Prehistoric Research), 1, 89-112.
• Tekin, H. (2016). Domuztepe 2014 yılı kazılarının ilk sonuçları. APAD (Anadolu Prehistorya Araştırmaları Dergisi/Journal of Anatolian Prehistoric Research), 2, 57-81.
• Tobler. A. J. (1950). Excavations at Tepe Gawra (Volume II). University of Pennsylvania Press. Van As, A., & Jacobs, L. (1989). Technological aspects of the Prehistoric pottery. Akkermans, P. M. M. G. (Editor), Excavations at Tell Sabi Abyad Prehistoric investigations in the Balikh Valley, Northern Syria. (ss. 215-232). Balikh Valley Archaeological Projects Monograph 1.
• Verhoeven, M. (2002). Transformations of society: The changing role of ritual and symbolism in the PPNB and the PN in the levant, Syria and South-east Anatolia. Paleorient, 28(1), 5-13.
• Watson, P.J. (1983). The Halafian culture: A review and synthesis. Young, T. C., Smith, P. E. L. & Mortensen, P. (Editors). The hilly flanks and beyond: Essay on the Prehistory of Southwestern Asia. Present to Robert J. Braidwood. (ss. 231-249). The Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
• Watson, P.J., & LeBlanc, S. A. (1990). Girikihaciyan a Halaf site in Southeastern Turkey. Institute of Archaeology University of California.
• Yakar, J. (1991). Prehistoric Anatolia: The Neolithic transformation and the Early Chalcolithic period. Institute of Archaeology of Tel Aviv University Publications.