Ulus Markalama ve Beslendiği Kaynaklar: Bir Derleme

Yıl 2019, Cilt: 8 Sayı: 1, 329 - 349, 30.06.2019

Şakir Özüdoğru , A. Halûk Yüksel

Öz

Ulus markalama, ülkelerin günümüzün küresel rekabet koşulları içinde daha fazla turistik cazibe kazanmak, insanlardan olumlu tepkiler almak, ihracatlarını arttırmak, dış yatırım ve kalifiye iş gücü çekmek için kendilerini tanıtmaları, farklılaştırılmaları yani markalaşmaları süreçlerini ifade etmektedir. 1996 yılında ilk kez Simon Anholt tarafından alanyazına kazandırılan ulus markalama kavramı görece yeni bir kavram olmasına karşın neredeyse bütün ülkelerin ilgi odağı olmuş ve farklı gelişmişlik düzeylerindeki birçok ülke tarafından ulus markalama kampanyaları uygulanmıştır. Bu çalışmada ulus markalama kavramı, kavramın tanımı ve beslendiği kaynaklar çerçevesinde konu hakkında ileride yapılacak çalışmalara ışık tutması amacıyla ele alınmıştır. Çalışmada, ulus markalama kavramı tanıtılmış, ulus markalamanın beslendiği dört temel alan olan menşe ülke çalışmaları, yer markalama, kamusal diplomasi ve ulusal kimlik çalışmaları kavramla ilişkileri, benzerlik ve farklılıkları bakımından incelenmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Ulus markalama, Menşe ülke etkisi çalışmaları, Yer markalama, Yumuşak güç, Ulusal kimlik

Kaynakça

• Aitken, R., & Campelo, A. (2011). The Rour Rs of Place Branding. Journal of Marketing Management, 37(9-10), 913-933.
• Akıllı, E. (2018). Uluslararası Öğrenciler, Ulus Markalama ve İyi Ülke İndeksi: Türkiye Örneği. Manas Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 7(3), 893-905.
• Aksoy, E. (2008). Ülkelerin Ve Coğrafi Bölgelerin Markalaşması (Uzmanlık Tezi). Ankara: Türk Patent Enstitüsü, Markalar Dairesi Başkanlığı.
• Altun, A. (2016). Küreselleşme Çağında Milliyetçilik ve Ulus-devlet. International Journal of Academic Value Studies, 2(3), 145-160.
• Anderson, B. (2015). Hayali cemaatler. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
• Anholt, S. (2007). Competitive Identitiy: The New Brand Management for Nations, Cities and Regions. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Aronczyk, M. (2008). “Living the Brand”: Nationality, Globality and the Identity Strategies of Nation Branding Consultants. International Journal of Communication, 2(1), 41-65.
• Ashworth, G. J., & Kavaratzis, M. (2009). Beyond the Logo: Brand Management for Cities. Journal of Brand Management, 16(8), 520-531.
• Baker, B. (2007). Destination Branding for Small Cities: The Essentials for Successful Place Branding. Portland: Creative Leap Books.
• Belloso, J. C. (2010). The City Branding of Barcelona: A Success Story. K. Dinnie içinde, City Branding: Theory and Cases (s. 118-123). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Bianchini, F., & Ghilardi, L. (2007). Thinking Culturally about Place. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 3(4), 280-286.
• Bilkey, W., & Nes, E. (1982). Country-of-origin Effects on Products Evaluations. Journal of International Business Studies, 13(1), 89-99.
• Blechman, B. M. (2005). Nye’s Soft Power. Political Science Quarterly, 119(4), 680-681.
• Boisen, B., Terlouw, K., & van Gorp, B. (2011). The Selective Nature of Place Branding and the Layering of Spatial Identities. Journal of Place Management and Development, 40(2), 135-147.
• Conversi, D. (2007). Mapping the Field: Theories of Nationalism and Ethnosymbolic Approach. A. S. Leoussi & S. Grosby içinde, Nationalism and Ethnosymbolism: History, Culture and Ethnicity in the Formation of Nations (s. 15-30). Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
• Çoban, M. (2012). Milliyetçilik Teorileri. Türk Yurdu, 295, 345-351.
• de Chernatony, L. (2008). Adapting Brand theory to The Context of Nation Branding. K. Dinnie içinde, Nation Branding: Concpets, Issues, Practice (s. 16-22). New York: Elsevier.
• Dinnie, K. (2008). Nation Branding: Concepts, Issues, Practices. New York: Elsevier.
• Eller, J. D. & Coughlan, R. M. (1993). The Poverty of Primordialism: The Demystification of Ethnic Attachments. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 16(2), 183-201.
• Erickson, G. M., Johansson, J. K., & Chao, P. (1984). Image Variables in Multi-attribute Product Evaluations: Country-of-origin. Journal of Consumer Reserach, 11(2), 694-699.
• Fan, Y. (2006). Branding the Nation: What is Being Branded? Journal of Vacation Marketing, 12(1), 5-14.
• Fan, Y. (2008). Soft Power: Power of Attraction or Confusion?. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 4, 147-158.
• Fan, Y. (2010). Branding the Nation: Towards a Better Understanding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 6(2), 97-103.
• Fetscherin, M. (2010). The Determinants and Measurement of a Country Brand: The Country Brand Strenght Index. International Marketing Review, 27(4), 466-479.
• Geertz, C. (1993). The Interpretation of Cultures. Londra: Fontana.
• Gellner, E. (2018). Uluslar ve Ulusçuluk. İstanbul: Hil Yayınları.
• Ger, G. (1991). Country Image: Perceptions, Attitudes, and Associations, and Their Relationsship to Context. 3rd International Conference on Marketing and Development Proceedings içinde (ss. 390-398). New Delhi: Hindistan.
• Go, F. M., & Govers, R. (2010). Introduction. F. M. Go, & R. Govers içinde, International Place Branding Yearbook 2010: Place Branding in the New Age of Innovation içinde (s. xxii-xli). Londra: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Govers, R., & Go, F. M. (2009). Place Branding: Glocal, Virtual and Physical Identities, Constructed, Imagined and Experienced. Londra: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Govers, R. (2013). Why Place Branding is not about Logos and Slogans. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 9(2), 71-75.
• Guibernau, M. (2004). Anthony Smith on Nations and National Identity: A Critical Assessment. Nations and Nationalism, 10(1-2), 125-141.
• Han, C. M., & Terpstra, V. (1988). Country-of-origin Effects for Uni-national and Binational Products. Journal of International Business Studies, 19, 235-255.
• Han, C. M. (1989). Country Image: Halo or Summary Construct?. Journal of Marketing Research, 26, 222-229.
• Handayani, B., & Rashid, B. (2013). Conceptualisation of Nation Brand Image. International Journal of Management Studies, 20(2), 165-183.
• Hankinson, G. (2004). Relational Netwrok Brands: Towards a Conceptual Model of Place Brands. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 10(2), 109-121.Hanna, S., & Rowley, J. (2011). Towards a Strategic Place Brand-management Model. Journal of Marketing Management, 27(5-6), 458-476.
• Hastings, A. (1997). The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Hippler, J. (2007). Şiddetli Anlaşmazlıklar, Anlaşmazlıklardan Kaçınma ve Ulus İnşası: Terminoloji ve Politik Konseptler. J. Hippler içinde, Ulus İnşası (s. 7-19). İstanbul: Versus.
• Hobsbawm, E. (1995). 1780’den Günümüze Milletler ve Milliyetçilik: Program, Mit, Gerçeklik. İstanbul: Ayrıntı Yayınları.
• Hobsbawm, E. (2013a). Giriş: Gelenekleri İcat Etmek. E. Hobsbawm, & T. Ranger içinde, Geleneğin İcadı (s. 1-18). İstanbul: Agora Kitaplığı.
• Hobsbawm, E. (2013b). Seri Üretim Gelenekler: Avrupa, 1870-1914. E. Hobsbawm, & T. Ranger içinde, Geleneğin İcadı (s. 305-356). İstanbul: Agora Kitaplığı.
• Hunter, A. (2009). Soft Power: China on the Global Stage. Chinese Journal of Inernational Politics, 2, 373-398.
• Hudson Teslik, L. (2007). Nation Branding Explained. 05 03, 2019 tarihinde Council of Foreign Relations: https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/nation-branding-explained adresinden alındı.
• Iversen, N. M., & Hem, L. E. (2008). Provrnance Associations as Core Values of Place Umbrella Brands: A Framework of Characteristics. European Journal of Marketing, 42(5-6), 603-626.
• Jansen, S. C. (2008). Designer Nations: Neo-liberal Nation branding – Brand Estonia. Social Identities, 14(1), 121-142.
• Jordan, P. (2013). Nation Branding: A Tool for Nationalism? Journal of Baltic Studies, 45(3), 283-303.
• Kaneva, N. (2011). Nation Branding: Toward an Agenda for Critical Research. International Journal of Communication, 5, 117-141.
• Karabulut, B. (2018). Uluslararası İlişkilerde İmaj Yönetimi: Ulus Markalama Örneği. Uluslararası Kriz ve Siyaset Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(2), 169-192.
• Kavaratzis, M., & Hatch, M. J. (2013). The Dynamics of Place Brands: An Identity-based Approach to Place Branding Theory. Marketing Theory, 13(1), 69-86.
• Köksoy, E. (2015). Kamu Diplomasisi Perspektifinden Ulus Markalaması. Akdeniz Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 23, 42-31.
• Küçükaydın, S. (2012). Tüketici Etnosentrizmi Ve Ülke Menşei Etkisinin Tüketicilerin Yabancı Markalı Ürün Tercihi Ve Satın Alma Niyeti Üzerine Etkisi (Doktora Tezi). İstanbul: Marmara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
• Leonard, K. (2017). Place-based Identity: Nine Place Branding Examples Worth Revisiting. TOKY: 14 11, 2018 tarihinde https://toky.com/journal/2017/02/26/place-branding-examples/ adresinden alındı.
• Maheswaran, D. (1994). Country of Origin as a Stereotype. Journal of Consumer Research, 21(2), 354-364.
• Maheswari, V., & Lodorfos, G. (2014). Exploring the Role of Stakeholders in Place Branding – A Case Analysis of the “City of Liverpool”. International Journal of Business and Globalization, 13(1), 104-121.
• Melissen, J. (2005). The New Public Diplomacy: Between Theory and Practice. J. Melissen içinde, The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations (s. 3-27). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Moilanen, T., & Rainisto, S. (2009). How to Brand Nations, Cities and Destinations. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Molnar, M., & Koen, V. (2015). Providing the Right Skills to All in China: From “made in China” to “created in China”. OECD Economic Department Working Papers, No. 1219. OECD: 05 01, 2019 tarihinde https://doi.org/10.1787/5js1j18g4tlx-en adresinden alındı.
• Nas, A. (2017). Ulus Markalama: Dünyadan Örneklerle Kuram ve Uygulama. İstanbul: Kriter Yayınevi.
• Nas, A. (2017b). Branding and National Identity: The Analysis of “Turkey: Discover the Potential” Campaign. Bilig, 83, 201-224.
• Noya, J. (2006). The Symbolic Power of Nations. Place Branding, 2(1), 53-67.
• Nye, J. (1990). Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power. New York: Basic Books.
• Nye, J. (2004). Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs.
• Nye, J. (2008). Foreword. W. Yasushi, & L. McConnell içinde, Soft Power Superpowers: Cultural and Natural Assets of Japan and the United States (s. ix-xiv). New York: An East Gate Book.
• Nagashima, A. (1977). A Comparative “Made-in” Product Image Survey among Japanese Businessman. Journal of Marketing, 41, 95-100.
• Olins, W. (1999). Corporate Identity: Making Business Strategy Visible through Design. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
• Olins, W. & Hildreth, J. (2011). Nation Branding: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow. A. Pritchard & R. Pride içinde, Destination Brands: Managing Place Reputation (s. 55-68). New York: Routledge.
• Özenç, H. (2002). Tükiye’nin İmaj Sorunu ve İhracat. Kalder Forum, 2(8), 38-44.
• Özkırımlı, U. (2010). Theories of Nationalism. New York: Palgrave.
• Niesing, E. (2013). Latin America’s Potential in Nation Branding: A Closer Look at Brazil’s, Chile’s and Colombia’a Practices. Hamburg: Anchor Academic Publishing.
• Papadopoulos, N., & Heslop, L. A. (1993). Product-country Images: Impact and Role in International Marketing. Binghampton: International Business Press.
• Papadopoulos, N. (2004). Place Branding: Evolution, Meaning and Implications. Place Branding and Puclic Diplomacy, 1(1), 36-49.
• Porter, M. E. (1990). The Competitive Advantage of Nations. Harvard Business Review, 68(2), 73-91.
• Rinaldi, C., & Beeton, S. (2015). Success in Place Branding: The Case of the Tourism Victoria Jigsaw Campaign. Journal of Travel & Toursim Marketing, 32, 622-638.
• Rojas-Mendez, J. (2013). The Nation Brand Molecule. Journal of Product & Brand Management, 22(7), 462-472.
• Ryan, J. (2008). The Finnish Country-of-origin Effect: The Quest to Create a Distinctive Identity in a Crowded and Competitive International Marketplace. Brand Management, 16(1-2), 13-20.
• Schneider, C. P. (2005). Culture Communicates: US Diplomacy that Works. J. Melissen içinde, The New Public Diplomacy: Soft Power in International Relations (s. 147-168). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Shils, E. (1957). Premordial, Personal, sacred and Civil ties. British Journal of Sociology, 8(2), 130-145.
• Smith, A. D. (1999). Millî Kimlik. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
• Szondi, G. (2008). Public Diplomacy and Nation Branding: Conceptual Similarities and Differences. Netherlands Institute of International Relations: 01 12 , 2018 tarihinde https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gyorgy_Szondi/publication/253744488_Public_Diplomacy_and_Nation_Branding_Conceptual_Similarities_and_Differences/links/575ac77008aec91374a618bd/Public-Diplomacy-and-Nation-Branding-Conceptual-Similarities-and-Differences.pdf adresinden erişildi.
• Treanor, P. (1997). Structures of Nationalism. Sociological Research Online, 2 (1): 12 12, 2018 tarihinde http://www.socresonline.org.uk/2/1/8.html adresinden erişildi.
• Tsutomu, S. (2008). Japanese Creative Industries: Culture as a Source of Soft Power in the Industrial Sector. W. Yasushi, & L. McConnell içinde, Soft Power Superpowers: Cultural and Natural Assets of Japan and the United States (s. 128-153). New York: An East Gate Book.
• Tuch, H. N. (1990). Communicating with the World: U.S. Public Diplomacy Overseas. New York: St. Martin’s Press.
• Ünal, U. (2017). Ülke Markalaması Üzerinden Kamu Diplomasisi ve Türkiye Analizi. 05 03, 2019 tarihinde Türkiye Asya Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi: http://www.tasam.org/tr-TR/Icerik/45109/ulke_markalamasi_uzerinden_kamu_diplomasisi_ve_turkiye_analizi adresinden alındı.
• Van den Berghe, P. (1981). The Ethnic Phenomenon. New York: Elsevier.
• van Ham, P. (2008). Place Branding: The State of Art. The Annals of the American Academy, 616, 126-149.
• Vatandaş, C. (2010). Ulusal Kimlik: Türk Ulusçuluğunun Doğuşu. İstanbul: Açılım Kitap.
• Verlegh, P. W. J., & Steenkamp, E. J. B. (1999). A Review and Meta-analysis of Country Origin Research. Journal of Economic Psychology, 20, 521-546.
• Volcic, Z., & Andrejevic, M. (2011). Nation Branding in the Era of Commercial Nationalism. International Journal of Communication, 5, 598-618.
• White, C. L. (2012). Brands and National Image: An Exploration of Inverse Country-of-origin Effect. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy, 8(2), 110-118.
• Yasushi, W., & McConnell, L. (2008). Introduction. W. Yasushi, & L. McConnell içinde, Soft Power Superpowers: Cultural and Natural Assets of Japan and the United States (ss. xvii-xxxii). New York: An East Gate Book.
• Yelken, R. (1999). Cemaatin Dönüşümü: Geç Modern Dönemde Cemaat Sosyolojisi. Ankara: Vadi Yayınları.
• Yılmaz, S. (2011). Yumuşak Güç ve Evrimi. Turan Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi Dergisi, 3(12), 31-36.