Selective lithium recovery from XRF melting waste via H₂TiO₃ Ion Sieve

Öz

The growing demand for lithium driven by energy storage technologies requires sustainable recovery strategies from secondary resources. In this study, lithium recovery from lithium-rich XRF melting wastes was investigated using a titanium-based lithium-ion sieve via the ion-exchange method. Li₂TiO₃ (LTO) was synthesized by a solid-state method and converted into protonated H₂TiO₃ (HTO) through acid treatment to obtain a lithium-selective adsorbent. Structural and surface characterization confirmed the formation of a stable ion-sieve framework with increased surface area after proton exchange. XRF melting waste, mainly composed of lithium tetraborate and metaborate flux residues collected from cement plants, was subjected to acid digestion to selectively transfer lithium into the aqueous phase while minimizing co-dissolution of competing metals. Adsorption experiments revealed strong pH-dependent lithium uptake with a maximum capacity of ~36 mg.g⁻¹ under alkaline conditions. Isotherm and kinetic analyses indicated that the adsorption process follows the Langmuir model and pseudo-second-order kinetics, suggesting monolayer chemisorption governed by ion-exchange mechanisms. Thermodynamic evaluation showed that lithium adsorption is spontaneous and endothermic. The adsorbent exhibited high selectivity toward Li⁺ in real waste-derived solutions and maintained stable performance over repeated adsorption–desorption cycles with minimal titanium loss. This study demonstrates the feasibility of recovering lithium from XRF melting waste and highlights a new pathway for valorizing lithium and boron-rich residues within a circular economy framework.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Circular ecenomy
• Borate melting waste
• Lithium recovery
• Titanium based ion-sieve

Etik Beyan

It is not required for this study.

Teşekkür

The authors would like to thank TENMAK-Boron Research Institute for providing the research infrastructure and laboratory facilities that enabled this study.

H₂TiO₃ iyon eleği ile XRF eritiş atıklarından seçici lityum geri kazanımı

Öz

Enerji depolama teknolojilerinin gelişmesiyle birlikte lityuma olan talebin hızla artması, ikincil kaynaklardan sürdürülebilir geri kazanım stratejilerinin geliştirilmesini gerekli kılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, lityumca zengin XRF eritiş atıklarından lityum geri kazanımı, iyon değişim yöntemi kullanılarak titanyum bazlı bir lityum iyon eleği ile araştırılmıştır. Bu amaçla Li₂TiO₃ (LTO) katı hal yöntemi ile sentezlenmiş ve lityum seçici bir adsorban elde etmek için asit işlemi ile protonlanarak H₂TiO₃ (HTO)’ya dönüştürülmüştür. Yapısal ve yüzey karakterizasyonları, proton değişimi sonrasında yüzey alanı artmış kararlı bir iyon elek yapısının oluştuğunu doğrulamıştır. Çimento tesislerinden toplanan ve başlıca lityum tetraborat ile metaborat akı kalıntılarından oluşan XRF eritiş atığı, rakip metallerin eş çözünmesini en aza indirerek lityumun sulu faza seçici olarak aktarılmasını sağlamak amacıyla asit liç işlemine tabi tutulmuştur. Adsorpsiyon deneyleri, alkalin koşullarda yaklaşık 36 mg·g⁻¹ maksimum kapasite ile güçlü bir pH bağımlı lityum tutulumu olduğunu göstermiştir. İzoterm ve kinetik analizler, adsorpsiyon sürecinin Langmuir modeli ve yalancı ikinci dereceden kinetiğe uyduğunu ve iyon değişimi mekanizmasıyla gerçekleşen tek tabakalı kimyasal adsorpsiyona işaret ettiğini ortaya koymuştur. Termodinamik değerlendirme, lityum adsorpsiyonunun kendiliğinden gerçekleştiğini ve endotermik olduğunu göstermiştir. Adsorban, gerçek atık çözeltilerinde Li⁺ iyonlarına karşı yüksek seçicilik göstermiş ve tekrarlı adsorpsiyon–desorpsiyon döngülerinde minimum titanyum kaybı ile kararlı performans sergilemiştir. Bu çalışma, XRF eritiş atıklarından lityum geri kazanımının uygulanabilirliğini ortaya koymakta ve lityum ile bor bakımından zengin kalıntıların döngüsel ekonomi kapsamında değerlendirilmesi için yeni bir yaklaşım sunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Borat eritiş atığı
• Döngüsel ekonomi
• Lityum geri kazanımı
• titanyum temelli iyon elekler

Etik Beyan

Bu çalışma için ihtiyaç duyulmamaktadır.

Teşekkür

Yazarlar, bu çalışmanın gerçekleştirilmesini mümkün kılan araştırma altyapısı ve laboratuvar olanaklarını sağladığı için TENMAK-Bor Araştırma Enstitüsü’ne teşekkür eder.

Kaynakça

1. Ryu, T., Shin, J., Ghoreishian, S. M., Chung, K.-S., & Huh, Y. S. (2019). Recovery of lithium in seawater using a titanium intercalated lithium manganese oxide composite. Hydrometallurgy, 184, 22-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2018.12.012
2. Guo, X., Zhang, J., & Tian, Q. (2021). Modeling the potential impact of future lithium recycling on lithium demand in China: A dynamic SFA approach. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 137, 110461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2020.110461
3. Boroumand, Y., & Razmjou, A. (2024). Adsorption-type aluminium-based direct lithium extraction: The effect of heat, salinity and lithium content. Desalination, 577, 117406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.117406
4. Kavanagh, L., Keohane, J., Garcia Cabellos, G., Lloyd, A., & Cleary, J. (2018). Global lithium sources—industrial use and future in the electric vehicle industry: A review. Resources, 7(3), 57. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources7030057
5. Gardiner, N. J., Jowitt, S. M., & Sykes, J. P. (2024). Lithium: Critical, or not so critical? Geoenergy, 2(1), geoenergy2023-2045. https://doi.org/10.1144/geoenergy2023-045
6. Szlugaj, J., & Radwanek-Bąk, B. (2022). Lithium sources and their current use. Gospodarka Surowcami Mineralnymi, 38(1), 61-88. https://doi.org/10.24425/gsm.2022.140613
7. Zhang, J., Cheng, Z., Qin, X., Gao, X., Wang, M., & Xiang, X. (2023). Recent advances in lithium extraction from salt lake brine using coupled and tandem technologies. Desalination, 547, 116225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.116225
8. Alessia, A., Alessandro, B., Maria, V.-G., Carlos, V.-A., & Francesca, B. (2021). Challenges for sustainable lithium supply: A critical review. Journal of Cleaner Production, 300, 126954. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.126954

9. Marcinov, V., Klimko, J., Takáčová, Z., Pirošková, J., Miškufová, A., Sommerfeld, M., … & Oráč, D. (2023). Lithium production and recovery methods: Overview of lithium losses. Metals, 13(7), 1213. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13071213
10. Meng, F., McNeice, J., Zadeh, S. S., & Ghahreman, A. (2021). Review of lithium production and recovery from minerals, brines, and lithium-ion batteries. Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy Review, 42(2), 123-141. https://doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2019.1668387
11. Raiguel, S., Nguyen, V. T., Reis Rodrigues, I., Deferm, C., Riaño, S., & Binnemans, K. (2023). Recovery of lithium from simulated nanofiltration-treated seawater desalination brine using solvent extraction and selective precipitation. Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange, 41(4), 425-448. https://doi.org/10.1080/07366299.2023.2206440
12. Wesselborg, T., Virolainen, S., & Sainio, T. (2021). Recovery of lithium from leach solutions of battery waste using direct solvent extraction with TBP and FeCl3. Hydrometallurgy, 202, 105593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2021.105593
13. Nampeera, J. (2021). Functionalized cellulose-based adsorbent for lithium recovery from aqueous solutions [Master's thesis, İzmir Institute of Technology]. İzmir, Türkiye.
14. Zhang, Y.-n., Yu, D.-h., Jia, C.-y., Sun, L.-y., Tong, A., Wang, Y., … & Tang, J.-g. (2023). Advances and promotion strategies of membrane-based methods for extracting lithium from brine. Desalination, 566, 116891. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.116891
15. Lu, M., Miao, Y., Yang, Y., & Li, P. (2024). Continuous recovery of lithium and boron from Jezechake Salt Lake brine using fixed-bed adsorbers. Hydrometallurgy, 226, 106299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2024.106299
16. Park, S. H., Kim, J. H., Moon, S. J., Jung, J. T., Wang, H. H., Ali, A., … & Lee, Y. M. (2020). Lithium recovery from artificial brine using energy-efficient membrane distillation and nanofiltration. Journal of Membrane Science, 598, 117683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.memsci.2019.117683
17. Li, Y., Wang, M., Xiang, X., Zhao, Y., & Peng, Z. (2023). Separation performance and fouling analyses of nanofiltration membrane for lithium extraction from salt lake brine. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 54, 104009. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2023.104009
18. Li, Z., Li, C., Liu, X., Cao, L., Li, P., Wei, R., … & Lai, Z. (2021). Continuous electrical pumping membrane process for seawater lithium mining. Energy & Environmental Science, 14(5), 3152-3159. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1EE00354B
19. Wang, J., Yue, X., Wang, P., Yu, T., Du, X., Hao, X., … & Guan, G. (2022). Electrochemical technologies for lithium recovery from liquid resources: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 154, 111813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.111813
20. Kahvecioglu, A. (2022). Adsorbent Synthesis For The Recovery of Lithium From Water Resources [Master's thesis, İzmir Institute of Technology]. İzmir.
21. Sun, J., Li, X., Huang, Y., Luo, G., Tao, D., Yu, J., Chen, L., Chao, Y., & Zhu, W. (2023). Preparation of high hydrophilic H2TiO3 ion sieve for lithium recovery from liquid lithium resources. Chemical Engineering Journal, 453, 139485. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.139485
22. Nikfar, S., Fahimi, A., & Vahidi, E. (2025). Unlocking sustainable lithium: A comparative life cycle assessment of innovative extraction methods from brine. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 212, 107977. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2024.107977
23. Lu, M., Miao, Y., Yang, Y., & Li, P. (2024). DFT calculation and experiments for Li+/H+ ion-exchange on titanium-based lithium ion-sieves. Chemical Engineering Science, 300, 120619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2024.120619
24. Orooji, Y., Nezafat, Z., Nasrollahzadeh, M., Shafiei, N., Afsari, M., Pakzad, K., & Razmjou, A. (2022). Recent advances in nanomaterial development for lithium ion-sieving technologies. Desalination, 529, 115624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.115624
25. Chang, S. A., & Balouch, A. (2024). Analytical perspective of lithium extraction from brine waste: Analysis and current progress. Microchemical Journal, 200, 110291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2024.110291
26. Mends, E. A., & Chu, P. (2023). Lithium extraction from unconventional aqueous resources–a review on recent technological development for seawater and geothermal brines. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 11(5), 110710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2023.110710
27. Xiong, J., Zhao, Z., Liu, D., & He, L. (2022). Direct lithium extraction from raw brine by chemical redox method with LiFePO4/FePO4 materials. Separation and Purification Technology, 290, 120789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2022.120789
28. Liu, G., Zhao, Z., & Ghahreman, A. (2019). Novel approaches for lithium extraction from salt-lake brines: A review. Hydrometallurgy, 187, 81-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2019.05.005
29. Recepoğlu, Y. K., Kabay, N., Yoshizuka, K., Nishihama, S., Yılmaz-Ipek, İ., Arda, M., & Yüksel, M. (2018). Effect of operational conditions on separation of lithium from geothermal water by λ-MnO2 using ion exchange–membrane filtration hybrid process. Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange, 36(5), 499-512. https://doi.org/10.1080/07366299.2018.1529232
30. Recepoğlu, Y. K. (2025). Optimized Lithium (I) Recovery from Geothermal Brine of Germencik, Türkiye, Utilizing an Aminomethyl phosphonic Acid Chelating Resin. Solvent Extraction and Ion Exchange, 43(1), 23-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/07366299.2024.2404146
31. Recepoğlu, Y. K., & Özşen, A. Y. (2025). Hydrometallurgy of lithium: Selective separation from geothermal brines using chitosan-lithium ion sieve composite. Turkish Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 7(2), 140-153. https://doi.org/10.51435/turkjac.1629713
32. Chen, Q., Chen, Z., Li, H., & Ni, B.-J. (2024). Advanced lithium ion-sieves for sustainable lithium recovery from brines. Sustainable Horizons, 9, 100093. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.horiz.2024.100093
33. Wang, S., Zhang, M., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., Qiao, S., & Zheng, S. (2019). Application of citric acid as eluting medium for titanium type lithium ion sieve. Hydrometallurgy, 183, 166-174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2018.12.002
34. Zhao, K., Li, J., Yuan, J., Yu, X., Guo, Y., Jiang, Z., Li, M., Duo, J., & Deng, T. (2024). A novel Co-doped H2TiO3 spinning composite for efficient lithium recovery from alkaline lithium precipitation mother liquor. Chemical Engineering Journal, 482, 148989. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.148989
35. Farahbakhsh, J., Arshadi, F., Mofidi, Z., Mohseni-Dargah, M., Kök, C., Assefi, M., … & Boroumand, Y. (2024). Direct lithium extraction: A new paradigm for lithium production and resource utilization. Desalination, 575, 117249. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.117249
36. Pu, X., Du, X., Jing, P., Wei, Y., Wang, G., Xian, C., … & Ji, X. (2021). Interface and defect engineering enable fast and high-efficiency Li extraction of metatitanic acid adsorbent. Chemical Engineering Journal, 425, 130550. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.130550
37. Hartikainen, S. (2026). 3D-printed lithium-ion-sieve adsorbents for lithium recovery from Li-ion battery metals recycling process raffinates [Master's thesis, Lappeenranta-Lahti University of Technology LUT]. Lappeenranta, Finland.
38. Yu, J., Zhu, J., Luo, G., Chen, L., Li, X., Cui, P., Wu, P., Chao, Y., Zhu, W., & Liu, Z. (2023). 3D-printed titanium-based ionic sieve monolithic adsorbent for selective lithium recovery from salt lakes. Desalination, 560, 116651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2023.116651
39. Zhang, P., Yang, M., Xu, C., Wang, Q., He, C., Liu, C., & Lai, B. (2024). Insight into the synergistic mechanism of Co and N doped titanium-based adsorbents for liquid lithium extraction. Chemical Engineering Journal, 480, 147631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.147631
40. Zhang, G., Wei, Q., Xia, X., Huang, D., Tang, W., & Yu, W. W. (2025). Synergistic doping and coating of lithium ion-sieves for enhanced lithium recovery from brine. Desalination, 601, 118556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2025.118556
41. Zhang, H., Dong, B., Yang, Y., Long, X., Chen, H., Pan, J., & Zhou, C. Cu-Doped Titanium Lithium-Ion Sieves with Improved Hydrophilicity for Efficient Extraction of Lithium from Aqueous Resources. Available at SSRN 4805268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2024.153545
42. Liu, Q., Xing, H., Zhang, Y., Zhao, Y., Rong, M., Liu, H., & Yang, L. (2024). Highly hydrophilic H2TiO3 ion sieve with neodymium (Nd) doping enables fast and high-efficiency Li extraction. Separation and Purification Technology, 345, 127263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.127263
43. Wang, S., Zhang, M., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., Qiao, S., & Zheng, S. (2019). High adsorption performance of the Mo-doped titanium oxide sieve for lithium ions. Hydrometallurgy, 187, 30-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2019.05.004
44. Lawagon, C. P., Nisola, G. M., Mun, J., Tron, A., Torrejos, R. E. C., Seo, J. G., Kim, H., & Chung, W.-J. (2016). Adsorptive Li+ mining from liquid resources by H2TiO3: Equilibrium, kinetics, thermodynamics, and mechanisms. Journal of industrial and engineering chemistry, 35, 347-356. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jiec.2016.01.015
45. Chen, S., Chen, Z., Wei, Z., Hu, J., Guo, Y., & Deng, T. (2021). Titanium-based ion sieve with enhanced post-separation ability for high performance lithium recovery from geothermal water. Chemical Engineering Journal, 410, 128320. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.128320
46. Zhang, L., He, G., Zhou, D., Zhou, J., & Yao, Q. (2016). Study on transformation mechanism of lithium titanate modified with hydrochloric acid. Ionics, 22, 2007-2014. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-016-1742-x
47. Sujoto, V. S. H., Prasetya, A., Sutijan, Astuti, W., Jenie, S. N. A., Anggara, F., & Murti Petrus, H. T. B. (2026). Development and optimisation of titanium-based lithium-ion sieves through solid-state synthesis for high-efficiency Brine lithium recovery. Transition Metal Chemistry, 51(4). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11243-025-00693-z
48. Ji, Z.-Y., Yang, F.-J., Zhao, Y.-Y., Liu, J., Wang, N., & Yuan, J.-S. (2017). Preparation of titanium-base lithium ionic sieve with sodium persulfate as eluent and its performance. Chemical Engineering Journal, 328, 768-775. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2017.07.047
49. Chitrakar, R., Makita, Y., Ooi, K., & Sonoda, A. (2014). Lithium recovery from salt lake brine by H2TiO3. Dalton Transactions, 43, 8933-8939. https://doi.org/10.1039/C4DT00467A
50. Tang, D., Zhou, D., Zhou, J., Zhang, P., Zhang, L., & Xia, Y. (2015). Preparation of H2TiO3–lithium adsorbent using low-grade titanium slag. Hydrometallurgy, 157, 90-96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2015.07.009
51. Qu, W., Fu, Y., Zhang, Y., Wang, W., Xu, C., Liu, C., … & Liu, B. (2024). Structural/surficial dual regulated granular H2TiO3 lithium-ion sieves for lithium extraction from salt lake brine. Journal of Cleaner Production, 449, 141789. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.141789
52. Xu, X., Zhou, Y., Fan, M., Lv, Z., Tang, Y., Sun, Y., … & Wan, P. (2017). Lithium adsorption performance of a three-dimensional porous H2TiO3-type lithium ion-sieve in strong alkaline Bayer liquor. RSC Advances, 7(31), 18883-18891. https://doi.org/10.1039/C7RA01056G
53. Marthi, R., Yang, P., Owusu-Fordjour, E., & Smith, Y. (2022). Role of stacking faults and hydroxyl groups on the lithium adsorption/desorption properties of layered H2TiO3. Materials Today Advances, 14, 100237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtadv.2022.100237
54. Gu, D., Sun, W., Han, G., Cui, Q., & Wang, H. (2018). Lithium ion sieve synthesized via an improved solid state method and adsorption performance for West Taijinar Salt Lake brine. Chemical Engineering Journal, 350, 474-483. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2018.05.191
55. Wang, S., Li, P., Cui, W., Zhang, H., Wang, H., Zheng, S., & Zhang, Y. (2016). Hydrothermal synthesis of lithium-enriched β-Li2TiO3 with an ion-sieve application: Excellent lithium adsorption. RSC Advances, 6, 102608-102616. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6RA18018C
56. Xiao, X., Li, J., Qiu, K., Chen, M., & Zhang, X. (2024). Dual surfactants-assisted adsorption of lithium ions in liquid lithium resources on a superhydrophilic spinel-type H4Ti5O12 ion sieve. Separation and Purification Technology, 330, 125479. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2023.125479
57. Zhang, Q., Hai, C., Sun, Y., Gao, Y., Dong, S., … & Zhou, Y. (2025). Formation and working mechanisms of layered TiO2⋅H2O adsorbents for effectively recovering Li+ from oil-gas field brines. Separation and Purification Technology, 354, 128998. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.128998
58. Li, Y., Yang, Z., & Ma, P. (2023). Research progress on new types of H2TiO3 lithium-ion sieves: A review. Metals, 13(5), 977. https://doi.org/10.3390/met13050977
59. Wu, M., Wang, S., Jiang, M., Lei, Z., Xiong, S., & Chu, J. (2025). Preparation of W-doped titanium lithium ion sieve by hydrothermal method and enhanced adsorption performance for Li+. Ionics, 31, 3421-3432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-025-06104-8
60. Dai, X., Zhan, H., Qian, Z., Li, J., Liu, Z., & Wu, Z. (2021). Al-doped H2TiO3 ion sieve with enhanced Li+ adsorption performance. RSC Advances, 11, 34988-34995. https://doi.org/10.1039/D1RA06535A
61. Wang, Y., Xie, Y., Guo, X., Yan, X., Chen, Y., Hu, P., … & Lang, W. (2026). Morphological convergence in solid-state synthesis: Unveiling the critical role of TiO2 precursor size for high-performance H2TiO3 lithium ion-sieves. Particuology, 110, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1039/10.1016/j.partic.2025.12.023
62. Xu, J., Wei, X., Han, J., & Qin, W. (2024). Synthesis and optimisation mechanism of functionalised adsorption materials for lithium-ion extraction from salt water: A review. Separation and Purification Technology, 339, 126237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2023.126237
63. Zhao, B., Li, J., Zhang, M., Qiao, Y., Feng, S., & Liu, Z. (2026). Interfacial mechanism and kinetic characteristics of lithium adsorption on spinel titanium nanoplates. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 736, 139676. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2026.139676
64. Wu, J., Wang, W., Chen, W., Liu, C., Deng, T., & Yu, X. (2025). Inorganic porous carbon as the supporter of H2TiO3 via in-situ polymerization synchronous conversion for lithium recovery from aqueous solutions. Separation and Purification Technology, 356, 129806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.129806
65. Qian, H., Huang, S., Ba, Z., Wang, W., Yu, F., Liang, D., … & Wang, Y. (2021). HTO/cellulose aerogel for rapid and highly selective Li+ recovery from seawater. Molecules, 26(13), 4054. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26134054
66. Li, N., Gan, K., Lu, D., Zhang, J., & Wang, L. (2018). Preparation of three-dimensional macroporous–mesoporous lithium ion sieve with high Li+ adsorption capacity. Research on Chemical Intermediates, 44, 1105-1117. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11164-017-3154-6
67. Wang, Q., Yang, X., Li, C., Zhao, C., Huang, Y., Qiu, S., Qin, Y., & Shi, C. (2024). Titanium-based lithium ion sieve adsorbent H2TiO3 with enhanced Li+ adsorption properties by magnetic Fe doping. Separation and Purification Technology, 346, 127455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2024.127455
68. Marthi, R., Asgar, H., Gadikota, G., & Smith, Y. R. (2021). On the structure and lithium adsorption mechanism of layered H2TiO3. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 13(7), 8361-8369. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.0c20691
69. Ding, Y., Nhung, N. T. H., An, J., Chen, H., Liao, L., He, C., … & Fujita, T. (2023). Manganese-titanium mixed ion sieves for the selective adsorption of lithium ions from an artificial salt lake brine. Materials, 16(11), 4190. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16114190
70. Li, X., Cheng, H., Li, G., Chen, Z., Yu, H., Zheng, J., … & Tian, Z. (2026). Lattice anchoring via Ni doping empowers a robust H2TiO3 adsorbent for lithium extraction in strongly alkaline solutions. Chemical Engineering Journal, 172979. 10.1016/j.cej.2026.172979
71. He, G., Zhang, L., Zhou, D., Zou, Y., & Wang, F. (2015). The optimal condition for H2TiO3–lithium adsorbent preparation and Li+ adsorption confirmed by an orthogonal test design. Ionics, 21, 2219-2226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11581-015-1393-3
72. Safari, S., Lottermoser, B. G., & Alessi, D. S. (2020). Metal oxide sorbents for the sustainable recovery of lithium from unconventional resources. Applied Materials Today, 19, 100638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apmt.2020.100638
73. Tian, L., Ma, W., & Han, M. (2010). Adsorption behavior of Li+ onto nano-lithium ion sieve from hybrid magnesium/lithium manganese oxide. Chemical Engineering Journal, 156(1), 134-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2009.10.008
74. Wang, S., Chen, X., Zhang, Y., Zhang, Y., & Zheng, S. (2018). Lithium adsorption from brine by iron-doped titanium lithium ion sieves. Particuology, 41, 40-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.partic.2018.02.001
75. İpek, O. (2024). Lithium recovery from water by granulated pvc pan-titanium type lithium Ion-sieve [Master's thesis, Izmir Institute of Technology]. İzmir, Türkiye.
76. Shen, Z., Qi, S., Hong, C., Wang, X., Han, Z., Chen, J., Wu, Y., Han, T., Gu, J., & Xu, L. (2025). Preparation of zirconium-doped titanium ion sieve composites and lithium adsorption from salt-lake brine. Desalination, 602, 118618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2025.118618
77. Nyarangi, C., Nunna, P. R. T., Abu-Zahra, N., Baig, N., Abdulazeez, I., & Aljundi, I. H. (2023). Optimizing the synthesis process for Lithium-Ion sieve adsorbents: Effect of calcination temperature and heating rate on reaction efficiency and performance. Materials & Design, 235, 112417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2023.112417
78. Ma, T., Jin, Z., Jia, Z., & Peng, W. (2025). Synthesis of doped titanium-based lithium adsorbents with excellent stability and adsorption performance by solid state reactions. Desalination, 594, 118300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2024.118300
79. Zhang, G., Hai, C., Zhou, Y., Zhang, J., Liu, Y., Zeng, J., … & Wu, Z. (2023). Synthesis and performance estimation of a granulated PVC/PAN-lithium ion-sieve for Li+ recovery from brine. Separation and Purification Technology, 305, 122431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2022.122431
80. Wei, S., Wei, Y., Chen, T., Liu, C., & Tang, Y. (2020). Porous lithium ion sieves nanofibers: General synthesis strategy and highly selective recovery of lithium from brine water. Chemical Engineering Journal, 379, 122407. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.122407
81. Zhang, L., Zhou, D., Yao, Q., & Zhou, J. (2016). Preparation of H2TiO3-lithium adsorbent by the sol–gel process and its adsorption performance. Applied Surface Science, 368, 82-87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2016.01.203
82. Wang, X., Jiang, X., Wu, J., Zhao, K., Guo, Y., Deng, T., & Yu, X. (2023). Recovery of lithium from brine with different degrees of mineralization by resorcinol/urea–formaldehyde foam-supported H2TiO3. Chemical Engineering Journal, 462, 142285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2023.142285
83. Li, X., Chao, Y., Chen, L., Chen, W., Luo, J., Wang, C., … & Zhu, W. (2020). Taming wettability of lithium ion sieve via different TiO2 precursors for effective Li recovery from aqueous lithium resources. Chemical Engineering Journal, 392, 123731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2019.123731
84. Lin, H., Yu, X., Li, M., Duo, J., Guo, Y., & Deng, T. (2019). Synthesis of polyporous ion-sieve and its application for selective recovery of lithium from geothermal water. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 11(29), 26364-26372. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b07401
85. Ding, W., Zhang, J., Liu, Y., Guo, Y., Deng, T., & Yu, X. (2021). Synthesis of granulated H4Mn5O12/chitosan with improved stability by a novel cross-linking strategy for lithium adsorption from aqueous solutions. Chemical Engineering Journal, 426, 131689. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2021.131689
86. Zhang, Y., Liu, J., Yang, Y., Lin, S., & Li, P. (2021). Preparation of granular titanium-type lithium-ion sieves and recyclability assessment for lithium recovery from brines with different pH value. Separation and Purification Technology, 267, 118613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.seppur.2021.118613
87. Knapik, E., Rotko, G., Marszałek, M., & Piotrowski, M. (2023). Comparative study on lithium recovery with ion-selective adsorbents and extractants: Results of multi-stage screening test with the use of brine simulated solutions with increasing complexity. Energies, 16(7), 3149. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16073149
88. Luo, G., Li, X., Chen, L., Chao, Y., & Zhu, W. (2023). Electrochemical lithium ion pumps for lithium recovery: A systematic review and influencing factors analysis. Desalination, 548, 116228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2022.116228
89. Reich, R., Slunitschek, K., Danisi, R. M., Eiche, E., & Kolb, J. (2023). Lithium extraction techniques and the application potential of different sorbents for lithium recovery from brines. Mineral processing and extractive metallurgy review, 44(4), 261-280. https://doi.org/10.1080/08827508.2022.2047041
90. Zhang, T., Liu, Y., Peng, Y., & Qiu, F. (2024). In situ carbonized cellulose-based hybrid aerogels for lithium adsorption and recovery. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 14, 7139-7147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-022-03199-1
91. Ye, S., Yang, C., Sun, Y., Guo, C., Wang, J., Chen, Y., … & Qiu, T. (2024). Application and mechanism of lithium-ion sieves in the recovery of lithium-containing wastewater: A review. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 235, 272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-024-07085-6
92. Moazeni, M., Hajipour, H., Askari, M., & Nusheh, M. (2015). Hydrothermal synthesis and characterization of titanium dioxide nanotubes as novel lithium adsorbents. Materials Research Bulletin, 61, 70-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.materresbull.2014.09.069
93. Loganathan, P., Naidu, G., & Vigneswaran, S. (2017). Mining valuable minerals from seawater: a critical review. Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, 3, 37-53. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6EW00268D
94. Hayashi, F., Ogawa, K., Moriya, Y., Sudare, T., & Teshima, K. (2018). Growth of β-Li2TiO3 nanocrystals from LiCl and LiOH fluxes. Crystal Growth & Design, 19(2), 1377-1383. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.cgd.8b01758
95. Wang, S., Li, P., Zhang, X., Zheng, S., & Zhang, Y. (2017). Selective adsorption of lithium from high Mg-containing brines using HXTiO3 ion sieve. Hydrometallurgy, 174, 21-28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hydromet.2017.09.009