Sağlık ve Hastalıkta Oral Kavite Mikrobiyotası

Yıl 2018, Cilt: 2 Sayı: 1, 9 - 22, 30.04.2018

Doğukan Yılmaz Mustafa Altındiş

Öz

İnsan
oral kavitesi; dişler, dişetleri, dil, yumuşak ve sert damak gibi farklı
anatomik özelliklere sahip zengin bir habitat içerir. Oral mikrobiyota; bakteri,
fungus, virüs ve ark’lardan oluşan bu habitatlarda yerleşim gösteren
mikroorganizma topluluğudur. Bu mikroorganizmaların her birinin tek başlarına
önemli rolleri vardır ancak birbirleriyle ve konakla da ciddi etkileşime
girmektedirler. Bu derlemede, oral mikrobiyota elemanlarının oral kaviteye
nasıl yerleştikleri ve konakla yaşam boyunca girdikleri dinamik etkileşimin
yanı sıra, Oral kavitenin başlıca hastalıklarından, diş çürüğü, periodontal
hastalıklar gibi durumlarda mikrobiyotanın etkisi ve değişiminden
bahsedilmiştir. Oral mikrobiyotanın zengin yapısı sadece ağız hastalıkları ile
sınırlı kalmaz aynı zamanda diabet, kardiyovasküler hastalıklar ve kanser gibi
popülasyonun çok büyük bir bölümünü etkileyen sistemik ve metabolik
hastalıkların etyolojik ve patofizyolojik mekanizmalarında önemli etkileri
mevcuttur. Oral mikrobiyotanın kolonizasyonu, birbirleriyle ve konakla ilişkileri,
oral ve sistemik sağlık ve hastalıklardaki değişimleri, hastalıkların
etiyolojisi ve mekanizmalarının anlaşılmasında ve tedavilerinde kilit öneme
sahip olabilir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Oral Mikrobiyota, Oral Ekosistem, Ağız Hastalıkları

Kaynakça

• 1. Collins LM, Dawes C. The surface area of the adult human mouth and thickness of the salivary film covering the teeth and oral mucosa. J Dent Res, 1987;66:1300-1302.
• 2. Dewhirst FE, Chen T, Izard J, Paster BJ, Tanner AC, Yu WH, Lakshmanan A, Wade WG. The human oral microbiome. J Bacteriol. 2010; 192: 5002-5017.
• 3. Paster BJ, Boches SK, Galvin JL, Ericson RE, Lau CN, Levanos VA, Sahasrabudhe A, Dewhirst FE. Bacterial diversity in human subgingival plaque. J Bacteriol. 2001;12: 3770-3783.
• 4. Feng Z, Weinberg A. Role of bacteria in health and disease of periodontal tissues. Periodontol 2000. 2006; 40:50-76.
• 5. Jiang WX, Hu YJ, Gao L, He ZY, Zhu CL, Ma R, Huang ZW. The impact of various time intervals on the supragingival plaque dynamic core microbiome. PLoS One. 2015;5:e0124631.
• 6. Ghannoum MA, Jurevic RJ, Mukherjee PK, Cui F, Sikaroodi M, Naqvi A, Gillevet PM. Characterization of the oral fungal microbiome (mycobiome) in healthy individuals. PLoS Pathog. 2010;1:e1000713.
• 7. Krishnan PA. Fungal infections of the oral mucosa. Indian J Dent Res. 2012; 23: 650-659.
• 8. Kumaraswamy KL, Vidhya M. Human papilloma virus and oral infections: an update. J Cancer Res Ther. 2011; 7: 120-127.
• 9. Whitley RJ, Roizman B. Herpes simplex virus infections. Lancet. 2001; 357: 1513-1518.
• 10. Dridi BD, Raoult D, Drancourt M. Archaea as emerging organisms in complex human microbiomes. Anaerobe. 2011; 17: 56-63.
• 11. Nguyen-Hieu T, Khelaifia S, Aboudharam G, Drancourt M. Methanogenic archaea in subgingival sites: a review. APMIS. 2013; 121: 467-477.
• 12. Lepp PW, Brinig MM, Ouverney CC, Palm K, Armitage GC, Relman DA. Methanogenic Archaea and human periodontal disease. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004;16: 6176-6181.
• 13. Human Microbiome Project, Consortium. Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. Nature. 2012; 486: 207-214.
• 14. Groeger SE, Meyle J. Epithelial barrier and oral bacterial infection. Periodontol 2000. 2015; 69:46-67.
• 15. Chen J, Ahmad R, Li W, Swain M, Li Q. Biomechanics of oral mucosa. J R Soc Interface. 2015; 109: 20150325.
• 16. He J, Li Y, Cao Y, Xue J, Zhou X. The oral microbiome diversity and its relation to human diseases. Folia Microbiol (Praha). 2015; 60:69-80.
• 17. Kazor CE, Mitchell PM, Lee A. M., Stokes LN, Loesche WJ, Dewhirst FE, Paster BJ. Diversity of bacterial populations on the tongue dorsa of patients with halitosis and healthy patients. J Clin Microbiol. 2003; 41: 558-563.
• 18. Sato Y, Yamagishi J, Yamashita R, Shinozaki N, Ye B, Yamada T, Yamamoto M, Nagasaki M, Tsuboi A. Inter-Individual Differences in the Oral Bacteriome Are Greater than Intra-Day Fluctuations in Individuals. PLoS One. 2015; 10: e0131607.
• 19. Zhang CZ, Cheng XQ, Li JY, Zhang P, Yi P, Xu X, Zhou XD. Saliva in the diagnosis of diseases. Int J Oral Scİ. 2016; 3: 133-137.
• 20. Zaura E, Keijser BJ, Huse SM, Crielaard W. Defining the healthy "core microbiome" of oral microbial communities. BMC Microbiol, 2009; 9: 259.
• 21. Socransky SS, Manganiello SD. The oral microbiota of man from birth to senility. J Periodontol. 1971; 42: 485-496.
• 22. Rotimi VO, Duerden BI. The development of the bacterial flora in normal neonates. J Med Microbiol. 1981; 14: 51-62.
• 23. Baker JL, Bor B, Agnello M, Shi W, He X. Ecology of the Oral Microbiome: Beyond Bacteria. Trends Microbiol. 2017; 25: 362-374.
• 24. Jakubovics NS. Intermicrobial Interactions as a Driver for Community Composition and Stratification of Oral Biofilms. J Mol Biol. 2015; 427: 3662-3675.
• 25. Siqueira WL, Custodio W, McDonald EE. New insights into the composition and functions of the acquired enamel pellicle. J Dent Res. 2012; 91: 1110-1118.
• 26. Thomas JG, Nakaishi LA. Managing the complexity of a dynamic biofilm. J Am Dent Assoc. 2006; 137: 10-15.
• 27. Scannapieco FA, Torres GI, Levine MJ., Salivary amylase promotes adhesion of oral streptococci to hydroxyapatite. J Dent Res. 1995; 74:1360-1366.
• 28. Gibbons RJ, Hay DI, Cisar JO, Clark WB. Adsorbed salivary proline-rich protein 1 and statherin: receptors for type 1 fimbriae of Actinomyces viscosus T14V-J1 on apatitic surfaces. Infect Immun. 1988; 56:2990-2993.
• 29. Rickard AH, Gilbert P,High NJ, Kolenbrander PE, Handley PS. Bacterial coaggregation: an integral process in the development of multi-species biofilms. Trends Microbiol. 2003; 11: 94-100.
• 30. Kolenbrander PE, London J. Adhere today, here tomorrow: oral bacterial adherence. J Bacteriol. 1993; 175:3247-3252.
• 31. Kolenbrander PE, Andersen RN, Moore LV. Intrageneric coaggregation among strains of human oral bacteria: potential role in primary colonization of the tooth surface. Appl Environ Microbiol. 1990; 56:3890-3894.
• 32. Irie Y, Parsek MJ. Quorum sensing and microbial biofilms. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2008; 322:67-84.
• 33. Chalmers NI, Palmer RJ, Cisar JO, Kolenbrander PE. Characterization of a Streptococcus sp.-Veillonella sp. community micromanipulated from dental plaque. J Bacteriol. 2008; 190:8145-8154.
• 34. Takahashi N, Nyvad B. Caries ecology revisited: microbial dynamics and the caries process. Caries Res. 2008; 42: 409-418.
• 35. Blander JM, Longman RS, Iliev ID, Sonnenberg GF, Artis D. Regulation of inflammation by microbiota interactions with the host. Nat Immunol. 2017; 18: 851-860.
• 36. Selwitz RH, Ismail AI, Pitts NB. Dental caries. Lancet. 2007; 369: 51-59.
• 37. Takahashi N, Nyvad B. The role of bacteria in the caries process: ecological perspectives. J Dent Res. 2011; 90:294-303.
• 38. Aas JA, Griffen AL, Dardis SR, Lee AM, Olsen I, Dewhirst FE, Leys EJ, Paster BJ. Bacteria of dental caries in primary and permanent teeth in children and young adults. J Clin Microbiol. 2008; 46: 1407-1417.
• 39. Preza D, Olsen I, Willumsen T, Boches SK, Cotton SL, Grinde B, Paster BJ. Microarray analysis of the microflora of root caries in elderly. Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 2009; 28: 509-517.
• 40. Takahashi N, Yamada T. Glucose and lactate metabolism by Actinomyces naeslundii. Crit Rev Oral Biol Med. 1999; 10:487-503.
• 41. Yang XQ, Zhang Q, Lu LY, Yang R, Liu Y, Zou J. Genotypic distribution of Candida albicans in dental biofilm of Chinese children associated with severe early childhood caries. Arch Oral Biol. 2012; 57: 1048-1053.
• 42. Klinke T, Guggenheim B, Klimm W, Thurnheer T. Dental caries in rats associated with Candida albicans. Caries Res. 2011; 45:100-106.
• 43. Metwalli KH, Khan SA, Krom BP, Jabra-Rizk MA. Streptococcus mutans, Candida albicans, and the human mouth: a sticky situation. PLoS Pathog. 2013; 9: e1003616.
• 44. Siqueira JF. Endodontic infections: concepts, paradigms, and perspectives. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2002; 94:281-293.
• 45. Rocas IN, Alves FR, Santos AL, Rosado AS, Siqueira JF. Apical root canal microbiota as determined by reverse-capture checkerboard analysis of cryogenically ground root samples from teeth with apical periodontitis. J Endod. 2010; 36: 1617-1621.
• 46. Siqueira JF, Rocas IN. Diversity of endodontic microbiota revisited. J Dent Res. 2009. 88: 969-981.
• 47. Santos AL, Siqueira JF, Rocas IN, Jesus EC, Rosado AS, Tiedje JM. Comparing the bacterial diversity of acute and chronic dental root canal infections. PLoS One. 2011; 6: e28088.
• 48. Murata T, Yamaga T, Lida T, Miyazaki H, Yaegaki K. Classification and examination of halitosis. Int Dent J. 2002; 52:181-186.
• 49. Allaker RP, Waite RD, Hickling J, North M, McNab R, Bosma MP, Hughes FJ. Topographic distribution of bacteria associated with oral malodour on the tongue. Arch Oral Biol. 2008; 53: 8-12.
• 50. Haraszthy VI, Zambon JJ, Sreenivasan PK, Zambon MM, Gerber D, Rego R, Parker C. Identification of oral bacterial species associated with halitosis. J Am Dent Assoc. 2007; 138:1113-1120.
• 51. Riggio MP, Lennon A, Rolph HJ, Hodge PJ, Donaldson A, Maxwell AJ, Bagg J. Molecular identification of bacteria on the tongue dorsum of subjects with and without halitosis. Oral Dis. 2008; 14:251-258.
• 52. Slots J. Periodontitis: facts, fallacies and the future. Periodontol 2000. 2017; 75: 7-23.
• 53. Huang S, Yang F, Zeng X, Chen J, Li R, Wen T, Li C, Wei W, Liu J, Chen L, Davis C, Xu J. Preliminary characterization of the oral microbiota of Chinese adults with and without gingivitis. BMC Oral Health. 2011; 11:33.
• 54. Berezow AB, Darveau RP. Microbial shift and periodontitis. Periodontol 2000. 2011; 55: 36-47.
• 55. Roberts FA, Darveau RP. Microbial protection and virulence in periodontal tissue as a function of polymicrobial communities: symbiosis and dysbiosis. Periodontol 2000. 2015; 69:18-27.
• 56. Griffen AL, Beall CJ, Campbell JH, Firestone ND, Kumar PS, Yang ZK, Podar M, Leys EJ. Distinct and complex bacterial profiles in human periodontitis and health revealed by 16S pyrosequencing. ISME J. 2012; 6:1176-1185.
• 57. Kumar PS, Griffen AL, Moeschberger ML, Leys EJ. Identification of candidate periodontal pathogens and beneficial species by quantitative 16S clonal analysis. J Clin Microbiol. 2005; 8:3944-3955.
• 58. Faveri M, Mayer MP, Feres M, de Figueiredo LC, Dewhirst FE, Paster BJ. Microbiological diversity of generalized aggressive periodontitis by 16S rRNA clonal analysis. Oral Microbiol Immunol. 2008;23:112-118.
• 59. Nibali L. Aggressive Periodontitis: microbes and host response, who to blame? Virulence. 2015; 3: 223-228.
• 60. Nikolopoulos GK, Dimou NL, Hamodrakas SJ, Bagos PG. Cytokine gene polymorphisms in periodontal disease: a meta-analysis of 53 studies including 4178 cases and 4590 controls. J Clin Periodontol. 2008; 35: 754-767.
• 61. Colombo AP, Bennet S, Cotton SL, Goodson JM, Kent R, Haffajee AD, Socransky SS, Hasturk H, Van Dyke TE, Dewhirst FE, Paster BJ. Comparisons of subgingival microbial profiles of refractory periodontitis, severe periodontitis, and periodontal health using the human oral microbe identification microarray. J Periodontol. 2009; 80: 1421-1432.
• 62. Colombo AP, Boches SK, Cotton SL, Goodson JM, Kent R, Haffajee AD, Socransky SS, Hasturk H, Van Dyke TE, Dewhirst F, Paster BJ. Impact of periodontal therapy on the subgingival microbiota of severe periodontitis: comparison between good responders and individuals with refractory periodontitis using the human oral microbe identification microarray. J Periodontol. 2012; 10:1279-1287.
• 63. Imbronito AV, Okuda OS, Maria de Freitas N, Moreira Lotufo RF, Nunes FD. Detection of herpesviruses and periodontal pathogens in subgingival plaque of patients with chronic periodontitis, generalized aggressive periodontitis, or gingivitis. J Periodontol. 2008; 79: 2313-2321.
• 64. Contreras A, Mardirossian A, Slots J. Herpesviruses in HIV-periodontitis. J Clin Periodontol. 2001; 28:96-102.
• 65. Saygun I, Sahin S, Ozdemir A, Kurtis B, Yapar M, Kubar A, Ozcan G. Detection of human viruses in patients with chronic periodontitis and the relationship between viruses and clinical parameters. J Periodontol. 200; 73:1437-1443.
• 66. Canabarro A, Valle C, Farias MR, Santos FB, Lazera M, Wanke B. Association of subgingival colonization of Candida albicans and other yeasts with severity of chronic periodontitis. J Periodontal Res. 2013; 48:428-432.
• 67. Newman MG. Improved clinical decision making using the evidence-based approach. Ann Periodontol. 1996; 1: 1-9.
• 68. Kholy KE, Genco RJ, Van Dyke TE. Oral infections and cardiovascular disease. Trends Endocrinol Metab. 2015; 26: 315-321.
• 69. Janket SJ, Baird AE, Chuang SK, Jones JA. Meta-analysis of periodontal disease and risk of coronary heart disease and stroke. Oral Surg Oral Med Oral Pathol Oral Radiol Endod. 2003; 95: 559-569.
• 70. Figuero E, Sanchez-Beltran M, Cuesta-Frechoso S, Tejerina JM, del Castro JA, Gutierrez JM, Herrera D, Sanz M. Detection of periodontal bacteria in atheromatous plaque by nested polymerase chain reaction. J Periodontol. 2011; 82:1469-1477.
• 71. Koren O, Spor A, Felin J, Fak F, Stombaugh J, Tremaroli V, Behre CJ, Knight R, Fagerberg B, Ley RE, Backhed F. Human oral, gut, and plaque microbiota in patients with atherosclerosis. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011; 108: 4592-4598.
• 72. Ohki T, Itabashi Y, Kohno T, Yoshizawa A, Nishikubo S, Watanabe S, Yamane G, Ishihara K. Detection of periodontal bacteria in thrombi of patients with acute myocardial infarction by polymerase chain reaction. Am Heart J. 2012; 163: 164-167.
• 73. Slocum C, Kramer C, Genco CA. Immune dysregulation mediated by the oral microbiome: potential link to chronic inflammation and atherosclerosis. J Intern Med. 2016; 280:114-128.
• 74. Poveda-Roda R, Jimenez Y, Carboneli E, Gavalda C, Margaix-Munoz MM, Sarrion-Perez G. Bacteremia originating in the oral cavity. A review. Med Oral Patol Oral Cir Bucal. 2008; 13:355-362.
• 75. Bahrani-Mougeot FK, Paster BJ, Coleman S, Ashar J, Barbuto S, Lockhart PB. Diverse and novel oral bacterial species in blood following dental procedures. J Clin Microbiol. 2008; 46:2129-2132.
• 76. Expert Committee on the, Diagnosis and Classification of Diabetes. Report of the expert committee on the diagnosis and classification of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 2003; 26 :5-20.
• 77. Loe H. Periodontal disease. The sixth complication of diabetes mellitus. Diabetes Care. 1993; 16:329-334.
• 78. Hintao J, Teanpaisan R, Chongsuvivatwong V, Ratarasan C, Dahlen G. The microbiological profiles of saliva, supragingival and subgingival plaque and dental caries in adults with and without type 2 diabetes mellitus. Oral Microbiol Immunol. 2007; 22:175-81.
• 79. Casarin RC, Barbagallo A, Meulman T, Santos VR, Sallum EA, Nociti FH, Duarte PM, Casati MZ, Goncalves RB. Subgingival biodiversity in subjects with uncontrolled type-2 diabetes and chronic periodontitis. J Periodontal Res. 2013; 48: 30-36.
• 80. Buysschaert M, Medina JL, Bergman M, Shah A, Lonier J. Prediabetes and associated disorders. Endocrine. 2015; 48:371-393.
• 81. Chee B, Park B, Bartold PM. Periodontitis and type II diabetes: a two-way relationship. Int J Evid Based Healthc. 2013;11: 317-329.
• 82. Grellmann AP, Sfreddo CS, Maier J, Lenzi TL, Zanatta FB. Systemic antimicrobials adjuvant to periodontal therapy in diabetic subjects: a meta-analysis. J Clin Periodontol. 2016; 43:250-260.
• 83. Allavena P, Garlanda C, Borrello MG, Sica A, Mantovani A. Pathways connecting inflammation and cancer. Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2008; 18:3-10.
• 84. Hooper SJ, Wilson MJ, Crean SJ. Exploring the link between microorganisms and oral cancer: a systematic review of the literature. Head Neck. 2009;31:1228-1239.
• 85. Bagan J, Sarrion G, Jimenez Y. Oral cancer: clinical features. Oral Oncol. 2010; 46: 414-417.
• 86. Mager DL, Haffajee AD, Devlin PM, Norris CM, Posner MR, Goodson JM. The salivary microbiota as a diagnostic indicator of oral cancer: a descriptive, non-randomized study of cancer-free and oral squamous cell carcinoma subjects. J Transl Med. 2005; 3: 27.
• 87. Hooper SJ, Crean SJ, Fardy MJ, Lewis MA, Spratt DA, Wade WG, Wilson MJ. A molecular analysis of the bacteria present within oral squamous cell carcinoma. J Med Microbiol. 2007; 56: 1651-1659.
• 88. Farrell JJ, Zhang L, Zhou H, Chia D, Elashoff D, Akin D, Paster BJ, Joshipura K, Wong DT. Variations of oral microbiota are associated with pancreatic diseases including pancreatic cancer. Gut. 2012; 61: 582-588.
• 89. Offenbacher S, Katz V, Fertlik G, Collins J, Boyd D, Maynor G, McKaig R, Beck J. Periodontal infection as a possible risk factor for preterm low birth weight. J Periodontol. 1996; 67: 1103-1113.
• 90. Han YW, Wang X. Mobile microbiome: oral bacteria in extra-oral infections and inflammation. J Dent Res. 2013; 92: 485-491.
• 91. Han YW, Shen T, Chung P, Buhimschi IA, Buhimschi CS. Uncultivated bacteria as etiologic agents of intra-amniotic inflammation leading to preterm birth. J Clin Microbiol. 2009; 47:38-47.
• 92. Docktor MJ, Paster BJ, Abramowicz S, Ingram J, Wang YE, Correll M, Jiang H, Cotton SL, Kokaras AS, Bousvaros A. Alterations in diversity of the oral microbiome in pediatric inflammatory bowel disease. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2012; 935-942.
• 93. Bashan A, Gibson TE, Friedman J, Carey VJ, Weiss ST, Hohmann EL, Liu YY. Universality of human microbial dynamics. Nature. 2016; 534: 259-262.
• 94. Yao J, Carter RA, Vuagniaux G, Barbier M, Rosch JW, Rock CO. A Pathogen-Selective Antibiotic Minimizes Disturbance to the Microbiome. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2016; 60: 4264-4273.
• 95. Ferrer M, Martins dos Santos VA, Ott SJ, Moya A. Gut microbiota disturbance during antibiotic therapy: a multi-omic approach. Gut Microbes. 2014; 5:64-70.
• 96. Diaz-Torres ML, Villedieu A, Hunt N, McNab R, Spratt DA, Allan E, Mullany P, Wilson M. Determining the antibiotic resistance potential of the indigenous oral microbiota of humans using a metagenomic approach. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2006; 258: 257-262.
• 97. Diaz-Torres ML, McNab R, Spratt DA, Villedieu A, Hunt N, Wilson M, Mullany P. Novel tetracycline resistance determinant from the oral metagenome. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2003; 47: 430-432.
• 98. Torres-Barcelo C, Hochberg ME. Evolutionary Rationale for Phages as Complements of Antibiotics. Trends Microbiol. 2016; 24:249-256.
• 99. Machuca P, Daille L, Vines E, Berrocal L, Bittner M. Isolation of a novel bacteriophage specific for the periodontal pathogen Fusobacterium nucleatum. Appl Environ Microbiol. 2010; 76:7243-7250.
• 100. Dalmasso M, de Hass E, Neve H, Strain R, Cousin FJ, Stockdale SR, Ross RP, Hill C. Isolation of a Novel Phage with Activity against Streptococcus mutans Biofilms. PLoS One. 2015; 10: e0138651.