EKONOMİK GEÇİŞ ÜLKELERİNDE “MODERN SU”DAN “YOZLAŞMIŞ SU”YA DOĞRU: BOSNA-HERSEK ÖRNEĞİ

Öz

Hidroelektrik üretim, ekonomik geçiş ülkelerinde önemli bir kalkınma stratejisi olarak pazarlanmaktadır. Bu da, bu ülkelerin bazılarında planlanan hidroelektrik santral sayılarında hızlı bir artışa sebep olmuştur. Ancak, veriler gösteriyor ki, planlanan projelerin birçoğu hayata geçirilmemiştir. Bu makalede, Bosna-Hersek örneğinden yola çıkarak bu tip kâğıt üzerinde kalan projelerin sonuçlarına ışık tutmak amaçlanmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, hidrososyal döngü kavramsallaştırması ışığında, kâğıt üzerinde kalan bu projelerin, suyun bir yolsuzluk aracına nasıl dönüştürüldüğü gösterilmektedir. Bu çalışmada iddia edilen, ekonomik geçiş ülkelerinde, suyun manasının teknolojik ilerleme aracından bir yolsuzluk aracına, bir diğer ifadeyle, ‘modern su’dan ‘yozlaşmış su’ya dönüştüğüdür.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• hidrososyal döngü
• hidroelektrik santral patlaması
• yolsuzluk
• sürdürülebilir kalkınma

From ‘Modern Water’ to ‘Corrupt Water’ in Transition Countries: The Case of Bosnia and Herzegovina

Öz

Hydropower is promoted as one of the prominent development strategies in transition countries. In several of these countries, this has created a boom of hydropower project plans. Yet, emerging evidence suggests that the majority of projects are never realised. In this paper, we present empirical evidence of non-materialised hydropower plants in Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to shed light on some of their consequences. Through the conceptual lens of the hydrosocial cycle, it is analysed how the hydropower boom imbues water with a new meaning by making water the means of corruption when the hydropower projects are not carried out. It is argued that hydrosocial relations are reshaped by the changing meaning of water from a means of technological advancement and economic development to a means of corruption, in other words, from ‘modern water’ to ‘corrupt water’ in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• hydrosocial cycle
• hydropower boom
• corruption
• sustainable development

Kaynakça

1. Almond, M. (1994). Europe's backyard war : the war in the Balkans. London: Mandarin.
2. Antonshin, N. N. (1974). Cooperation between the member nations of the COMECON and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in the hydropower field. Hydrotechnical Construction, 8, 999-1007.
3. Armstrong, C., Evenden, M., & Nelles, H. V. (2009). The River Returns. : An Environmental History of the Bow. Quebec, Canada: McGill-Queen's University Press.
4. Bakker, K. (1999). The politics of hydropower: Developing the Mekong. Political Geography, 18, 209-232. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-6298(98)00085-7
5. Bakker, K. (2000). Privatizing water, producing scarcity: The Yorkshire drought of 1995. Economic Geography, 76(1), 4-27.
6. Bakker, K. (2002). From state to market?: Water mercantilizacion in Spain. Environment and Planning A, 34(5), 767-790.
7. Bakker, K. (2009). Water. In N. Castree, D. Demeritt, D. Liverman, & B. Rhoads (Eds.), A Companion to Environmental Geography (pp. 515-532). Chichester, U.K. ; Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell,.
8. Bakker, K. (2012). Water: Political, biopolitical, material. Social Studies of Science, 42(4), 616-623. doi:10.1177/0306312712441396

9. Banister, J. M. (2014). Are you Wittfogel or against him? Geophilosophy, hydro-sociality, and the state. Geoforum, 57, 205-214. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.03.004
10. Baskaya, S., Baskaya, E., & Sari, A. (2011). The principal negative environmental impacts of small hydropower plants in Turkey. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(14), 3284-3290. doi:10.5897/AJAR10.786
11. Bear, C., & Bull, J. (2011). Water matters: agency, flows, and frictions. Environment and Planning A, 43(10), 2261-2266. doi:10.1068/a44498
12. Becker, B., & Fischer, D. (2013). Promoting renewable electricity generation in emerging economies. Energy Policy, 56, 446-455. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.01.004
13. Belloni, R., & Strazzari, F. (2014). Corruption in post-conflict Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo: a deal among friends. Third World Quarterly, 35(5), 855-871. doi:10.1080/01436597.2014.921434
14. BiH. (2011). Bosnia and Herzegovina: Energy sector. Sarajevo
15. Boelens, R. (2014). Cultural politics and the hydrosocial cycle: Water, power and identity in the Andean highlands. Geoforum, 57, 234-247. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.02.008
16. Boelens, R., Hoogesteger, J., Swyngedouw, E., Vos, J., & Wester, P. (2016). Hydrosocial territories: a political ecology perspective. Water International, 41(1), 1-14. doi:10.1080/02508060.2016.1134898
17. Brković, Č. (2015). Management of ambiguity: favours and flexibility in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Social Anthropology, 23(3), 268-282. doi:10.1111/1469-8676.12211
18. Budds, J. (2009). Contested H2O: Science, policy and politics in water resources management in Chile. Geoforum, 40(3), 418-430. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2008.12.008
19. Cernea, M. M. (1997). Hydropower dams and social impacts: A sociological perspective.
20. Cernea, M. M. (2004). Social impacts and social risks in hydropower programs: Preemptive planning and counter-risk measures. Paper presented at the United Nations Symposium on Hydropower and Sustainable Development, Beijing, China.
21. CIN. (2015). Energy prospects in BiH. Retrieved from https://www.cin.ba/energopotencijal/en/energopotencijal.pdf
22. Cole, M. A., Elliott, R. J. R., & Strobl, E. (2014). Climate change, hydro-dependency, and the African dam boom. World Development, 60, 84-98. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.03.016
23. Creţan, R., & Vesalon, L. (2017). The Political Economy of Hydropower in the Communist Space: Iron Gates Revisited. Tijdschrift voor economische en sociale geografie, 108(5), 688-701. doi:10.1111/tesg.12247
24. Devine, V., & Mathisen, H. (2005). Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina - 2005.
25. Divjak, B., & Pugh, M. (2008). The political economy of corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina. International Peacekeeping, 15(3), 373-386. doi:10.1080/13533310802058927
26. Dogmus, Ö.C. & Nielsen, J. 2020. Ø. (2020). The on-paper hydropower boom: A case study of corruption in the hydropower sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Ecological Economics, 172, 106630. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2020.106630
27. Duarte-Abadía, B., Boelens, R., & Roa-Avendaño, T. (2015). Hydropower, encroachment and the re-patterning of hydrosocial territory: The case of Hidrosogamoso in Colombia. Human Organization, 74(3).
28. Erlewein, A. (2013). Disappearing rivers — The limits of environmental assessment for hydropower in India. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 43, 135-143. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2013.07.002
29. EU. (2009). Directive 2009/28/EC. Retrieved from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=celex%3A32009L0028
30. EuroNatur, R. (2020). Hydropower Projects on the Balkan Rivers – 2020 Update. Retrieved from https://balkanrivers.net/uploads/files/3/Balkan_HPP_Update_2020.pdf
31. Evenden, M. D. (2004). Fish versus Power : An Environmental History of the Fraser River. Cambridge, UK ; New York: Cambridge University Press. FBiH. (2012). Water management strategy of FBiH.
32. Fernandez, S. (2014). Much Ado About Minimum Flows…Unpacking indicators to reveal water politics. Geoforum, 57, 258-271. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.04.017
33. Franco, J., Mehta, L., & Veldwisch, G. J. (2013). The global politics of water grabbing. Third World Quarterly, 34(9), 1651-1675. doi:10.1080/01436597.2013.843852
34. Guzina, D. (2007). Dilemmas of nation-building and citizenship in Dayton Bosnia. National Identities, 9(3), 217-234. doi:10.1080/14608940701406195
35. Hadzialic, A. (2016). World Small Hydropower Development Report 2016: Bosnia and Herzegovina.
36. Hamlin, C. (2000). ‘Waters’ or ‘Water’?- Master narratives in water history and their implications for contemporary water policy. Water Policy, 2, 313-325.
37. Hommes, L., Boelens, R., & Maat, H. (2016). Contested hydrosocial territories and disputed water governance: Struggles and competing claims over the Ilisu Dam development in southeastern Turkey. Geoforum, 71, 9-20. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2016.02.015
38. Huber, A., & Joshi, D. (2015). Hydropower, anti-politics, and the opening of new political spaces in the Eastern Himalayas. World Development, 76, 13-25. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.06.006
39. IEA. (2000). Survey on positive and negative environmental and social impacts and effects of mitigation measures on hydropower development. ,
40. IEA. (2016). Key World Energy Statistics.
41. IHA. (2017). 2017 Hydropower Status Report.
42. IRENA. (2017). Cost-competitive renewable power generation: Potential across South East Europe. Retrieved from Abu Dhabi
43. Islar, M. (2012). Privatised hydropower development in Turkey: A case of water grabbing? Water Alternatives, 5(2), 376-391.
44. Karakosta, C., Flouri, M., Dimopoulou, S., & Psarras, J. (2012). Analysis of renewable energy progress in the western Balkan countries: Bosnia–Herzegovina and Serbia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(7), 5166-5175. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2012.04.040
45. Lalic, D., Popovski, K., Gecevska, V., Vasilevska, S. P., & Tesic, Z. (2011). Analysis of the opportunities and challenges for renewable energy market in the Western Balkan countries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(6), 3187-3195. doi:10.1016/j.rser.2011.04.011
46. Latour, B. (1993). We Have Never Been Modern. Cambridge; Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
47. Lehner, B., Czisch, G., & Vassolo, S. (2005). The impact of global change on the hydropower potential of Europe: a model-based analysis. Energy Policy, 33(7), 839-855. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2003.10.018
48. Lekic, A. (2008). Energy sector in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Current status and plans. In K. Hanjalic, R. van de Krol, & A. Lekic (Eds.), Sustainable Energy Technologies: Options and Prospects (pp. 321-329). The Netherlands: Springer.
49. Linton, J. (2010). What is Water? : The History of a Modern Abstraction. Vancouver: UBC Press.
50. Linton, J. (2014). Modern water and its discontents: A history of hydrosocial renewal. WIREs Water, 1, 111-120. doi:10.1002/wat2.1009
51. Linton, J., & Budds, J. (2014). The hydrosocial cycle: Defining and mobilizing a relational-dialectical approach to water. Geoforum, 57, 170-180. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.10.008
52. Maass, P. (1996). Love thy neighbour : a story of war. London: Papermac.
53. Malcolm, N. (2002). Bosnia : a short history (Corr. ed.). London: Pan.
54. Maric, Z. (2009). The foreign direct investments entrance and its impact into countries in transition (Case of Bosnia and Herzegovina). Interdisciplinary Management Research, 5(1), 427-437.
55. Matthews, N. (2012). Water grabbing in the Mekong Basin: An analysis of the winners and losers of Thailand’s hydropower development in Lao PDR. Water Alternatives, 5(2), 392-411.
56. Mauch, C., & Zeller, T. (2008). Rivers in history perspectives on waterways in Europe and North AmericaHistory of the urban environment (pp. viii, 229 p.). Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/2027/heb.31076
57. McDonnell, R. A. (2014). Circulations and transformations of energy and water in Abu Dhabi’s hydrosocial cycle. Geoforum, 57, 225-233. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.11.009
58. McMahon, P. C., & Western, J. (2009). The death of Dayton: How to stop Bosnia from falling apart. Foreign Affairs, 88(5), 69-83.
59. Mekonnen, M. M., & Hoekstra, A. Y. (2012). The blue water footprint of electricity from hydropower. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 16(1), 179-187. doi:10.5194/hess-16-179-2012
60. Mollinga, P. P. (2014). Canal irrigation and the hydrosocial cycle. Geoforum, 57, 192-204. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2013.05.011
61. Muharemovic, A. (2016). Gap analysis for the sector of small hydropower plants in Bosnia and Herzegovina. In RENEXPO Conference. Sarajevo.
62. OCCPR. (2014). BiH: More Than 30 People Arrested in Biggest Crackdown on Corruption. Retrieved from https://www.occrp.org/en/daily/2488-bosnia-herzegovina-more-than-30-people-arrested-in-biggest-crackdown-on-corruption
63. Ohanyan, A. (2002). Post–conflict global governance: The case of microfinance enterprise networks in Bosnia and Herzegovina. International Studies Perspectives, 3(4), 396-416. doi:10.1111/1528-3577.t01-1-00106
64. Oud, E. (2002). The evolving context for hydropower development. Energy Policy, 30, 1215-1223. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00082-4 Papon, P., & Pejovnik, S. (2006). Guidelines for a science and research policy in Bosnia & Herzegovina.
65. Polimeni, J. M., Iorgulescu, R. I., & Chandrasekara, R. (2014). Trans-border public health vulnerability and hydroelectric projects: The case of Yali Falls Dam. Ecological Economics, 98, 81-89. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2013.12.013
66. PPPIRC. (2017). Concessions, Build-Operate-Transfer (BOT) and Design-Build-Operate (DBO) Projects. Public private partnership. Retrieved from https://ppp.worldbank.org/public-private-partnership/agreements/concessions-bots-dbos
67. Prelec, M. (2014). Winners and losers: Who benefits from high-level corruption in the South East Europe energy sector.
68. Pugh, M. (2002). Postwar political economy in Bosnia and Herzegovina: The spoils of peace. Global Governance, 8(4), 467-482. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/27800359.
69. Pugh, M. (2005). Transformation in the political economy of Bosnia since Dayton. International Peacekeeping, 12(3), 448-462. doi:10.1080/13533310500074564
70. Räsänen, T. A., Koponen, J., Lauri, H., & Kummu, M. (2012). Downstream hydrological impacts of hydropower development in the upper Mekong Basin. Water Resource Management, 26, 3495–3513. doi:10.1007/s11269-012-0087-0
71. Riverwatch & EuroNatur. (2018a). Hydropower development in the Balkans - 2017. Retrieved from http://balkanrivers.net/sites/default/files/2_Bosnia_DataUpdate2017.pdf
72. RiverWatch & EuroNatur. (2018b). Map | Save the Blue Heart of Europe. Retrieved from http://balkanrivers.net/en/map
73. Roberts, T. R. (1995). Mekong mainstream hydropower dams: Run-of-the-river or ruin-of-the-river? NAT. HIST. BULL. SIAM Soc., 43, 9-19.
74. Sajo, A. (1998). Corruption, clientelism, and the future of the constitutional state in Eastern Europe. E. Eur. Const. Rev., 7, 37.
75. Schmidt, J. J. (2014). Historicising the hydrosocial cycle. Water Alternatives, 7(1), 220-234.
76. Scholl, B. (2009). Electricity reform in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Utilities Policy, 17(1), 49-64. doi:10.1016/j.jup.2008.03.003
77. Schönach, P. (2017). River histories: a thematic review. Water History, 9(3), 233-257. doi:10.1007/s12685-016-0188-4
78. Shandling, K., & Lock, R. (2008). Industry view: public–private hydropower –minimising the corruption risks. In Global Corruption Report 2008: Corruption in the water sector (pp. 102-103). New York: Cambridge University Press.
79. Siciliano, G., & Urban, F. (2017). Equity-based natural resource allocation for infrastructure development: Evidence from large hydropower dams in Africa and Asia. Ecological Economics, 134, 130-139. doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2016.12.034
80. Smits, M., & Middleton, C. (2014). New arenas of engagement at the water governance-climate finance nexus: An analysis of the boom and bust of hydropower CDM projects in Vietnam. Water Alternatives, 7(3), 561-583.
81. Strang, V. (2004). The Meaning of Water. Oxford, New York: Berg.
82. Suica, J. S. (1971). Power development in Yugoslavia. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 27(9), 42-46. doi:10.1080/00963402.1971.11455412
83. Swyngedouw, E. (2004). Social Power and the Urbanization of Power: Flows of Power. UK: Oxford University Press.
84. Swyngedouw, E. (2005). Dispossessing H 2 O: the contested terrain of water privatization. Capitalism Nature Socialism (after Jan 1, 2004), 16(1), 81-98. doi:10.1080/1045575052000335384
85. Swyngedouw, E. (2006). Circulations and metabolisms: (Hybrid) Natures and (Cyborg) cities. Science as Culture, 15(2), 105-121. doi:10.1080/09505430600707970
86. Swyngedouw, E. (2009). The political economy and political ecology of the hydro-social cycle. Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education(142), 56-60.
87. Swyngedouw, E. (2011). Depoliticized Environments: The End of Nature, Climate Change and the Post-Political Condition. Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplement, 69, 253-274. doi:10.1017/s1358246111000300
88. Swyngedouw, E. (2013a). Into the Sea: Desalination as Hydro-Social Fix in Spain. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 103(2), 261-270. doi:10.1080/00045608.2013.754688
89. Swyngedouw, E. (2013b). UN Water Report 2012: Depoliticizing Water. Development and Change, 44(3), 823-835. doi:10.1111/dech.12033
90. Swyngedouw, E. (2015). Liquid Power : Contested Hydro-Modernities in Twentieth-Century Spain. UK: MIT Press.
91. Transparency International. (2016). Corruption Perceptions Index 2016. Retrieved from https://www.transparency.org/news/feature/corruption_perceptions_index_2016
92. Tzifakis, N., & Tsardanidis, C. (2006). Economic reconstruction of Bosnia and Herzegovina: The lost decade. Ethnopolitics, 5(1), 67-84. doi:10.1080/17449050600576316
93. UNIDO, & ICSHP. (2016). World Small Hydropower Development Report.
94. UNODC. (2011). Corruption in Bosnia and Herzegovina: Bribery as experienced by the population.
95. Warner, J. (2012). The struggle over Turkey’s Ilısu Dam: domestic and international security linkages. International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 12(3), 231-250. doi:10.1007/s10784-012-9178-x
96. White, R. (1995). The Organic Machine. New York: Hill and Wang.
97. Woodward, S. L. (2001). Compromised Sovereignty to Create Sovereignty: Is Dayton Bosnia a Futile Exercise or an Emerging Model? In S. D. Krasner (Ed.), Problematic sovereignty : contested rules and political possibilities (pp. xiii, 367 p.). New York ; Chichester: Columbia University Press.
98. World Bank. (2001). Bosnia and Herzegovina- Commercial legal framework and administrative barriers to investment. Retrieved from Washington, DC: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/826561468767949638/Main-report
99. World Bank. (2002). Bosnia and Herzegovina: Country procurement assessment report.
100. World Bank. (2016). Country Profile: Bosnia and Herzegovina. Retrieved from: http://databank.worldbank.org/data/Views/Reports/ReportWidgetCustom.aspx?Report_Name=CountryProfile&Id=b450fd57&tbar=y&dd=y&inf=n&zm=n&country=BIH
101. World Bank. (2017a). Bosnia and Herzegovina to create new private sector jobs for youth with World Bank support. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2017/01/05/bosnia-and-herzegovina-to-create-new-private-sector-jobs-for-youth-with-world-bank-support
102. World Bank. (2017b). Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate) | Data. Retrieved from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS
103. World Bank, Agency for Statistics of BiH., & FBiH Institute for Statistics and RS Institute for Statistics. (2015). Poverty and Inequality in Bosnia and Herzegovina 2007-2011.
104. World Energy Council. (2016). World Energy Resources: Hydropower.
105. Zarfl, C., Lumsdon, A. E., Berlekamp, J., Tydecks, L., & Tockner, K. (2015). A global boom in hydropower dam construction. Aquatic Sciences, 77, 161-170. doi:10.1007/s00027-014-0377-0
106. Zukin, S. (1975). Beyond Marx and Tito : Theory and Practice in Yugoslav Socialism. London: Cambridge University Press.