ORTA DOĞU VE KUZEY AFRİKA (MENA) ÜLKELERİNDE DİNDARLİK, KİŞİSEL DEĞERLER VE SOSYAL SERMAYE

Öz

Sosyal sermaye, din ve değerler üzerine araştırmaların çoğu Avrupa'da yapılmıştır. Orta Doğu ve Kuzey Afrika (MENA) bölgesinde, dinin ve değerlerin sosyal sermaye üzerindeki etkisine dair ikna edici ampirik kanıtlar çok azdır. Bu kanıt boşluğunu doldurmak için bu çalışma, Dünya Değerler Araştırması'nın 7. Turundan elde edilen bireysel düzeydeki verileri kullanarak 9 MENA ülkesinde dindarlıkla ilgili değişkenler, değerler ve sosyal sermaye arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemektedir. Bir dayanışma biçimi olarak sosyal sermayenin tanımını kullanarak, toplum yanlısı sermayeyi sivil normlar ve sivil aktivizm yoluyla ölçüyoruz. Faktör analizinin bulgularına dayanarak, iki bileşik gösterge oluşturulmuştur: sivil normlar ve sivil aktivizm. Literatürde yaygın olduğu gibi tek bir dindarlık ölçüsünü takip etmek yerine, kendi kendini tanımlayan maneviyat ve inanç yoğunluğu gibi MENA ülkelerindeki önemli dindarlık kavramlarını kapsayan diğer ölçüleri dikkate alıyoruz. Dindarlığın sivil normlar ve sivil aktivizm üzerindeki etkisini belirlemek için doğrusal bir regresyon kullanıldı. Bulgulara göre, sosyal güven, sivil normlarla negatif, sivil aktivizm ile pozitif olarak ilişkilidir. Kişiler ne kadar sık dua eder ve kendilerini dini mensubiyet olarak tanımlarlarsa, sivil norm seviyeleri o kadar yüksek ve bireyler dini hizmetlere ne kadar sık katılırlarsa, sivil norm seviyeleri o kadar düşük olur

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Sosyal Sermaye
• Dindarlık
• Sivil Normlar
• Orta Doğu ve Kuzey Afrika
• Sivil Aktivism.
• Sosyal Sermaye, Dindarlık, Sivil Normlar, Orta Doğu ve Kuzey Afrika, Sivil Aktivism.

RELIGIOSITY, PERSONAL VALUES, AND SOCIAL CAPITAL IN MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICAN (MENA) COUNTRIES

Öz

The majority of research on social capital, religion, and values has been conducted in Europe. In the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, there is a scarcity of convincing empirical evidence on the impact of religion and values on social capital. To fill this evidence gap, this study examines the relationship between religiosity-related variables, values, and social capital in 9 MENA countries utilizing individual-level data from Round 7 of the World Values Survey. Using the definition of social capital as a form of solidarity, we measure prosocial capital through civic norms and civic activism. Based on the findings of the factor analysis, two composite indicators were constructed: civic norms and civic activism. Rather than following a single measure of religiosity, as is common in the literature, we consider other measures that encapsulate important notions of religiosity in MENA countries, such as self-defined spirituality and intensity of belief. Linear regression was used to determine the effect of religiosity on civic norms and civic activism. According to the findings, social trust is negatively related to civic norms and positively associated with civic activism. The more frequently individuals pray and define themselves as having a religious affiliation, the higher their level of civic norms, and the more frequently individuals attend religious services, the lesser their level of civic norms.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Social Capital
• Religiosity
• Civic Norms
• Middle East and North Africa
• Civic Activism.

Kaynakça

1. Abou-Youssef, M.M.H., Kortam, W., Abou-Aish, E. & El-Bassiouny, N. (2015). Effects of Religiosity on Consumer Attitudes Toward Islamic Banking in Egypt. International Journal of Bank Marketing, 33 (6), pp. 786-807. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJBM-02-2015-0024
2. Acemoglu, D. (2008). Introduction to Modern Economic Growth. Princeton University Press.
3. Achilov, D. (2013). Social Capital, Islam, and the Arab Spring in the Middle East. Journal of Civil Society, 9(3), 268–286. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17448689.2013.816541
4. Afiouni, F. (2014). Women’s Careers in The Arab Middle East. Understanding Institutional Constraints to The Boundaryless Career View. Career Development International, 19(3), 314-336. DOI 10.1108/CDI-05-2013-0061
5. Aghion, P., and Howitt, P. (2009). The Economics of Growth. The MIT Press. Cambridge MA.
6. Ahern, M. M., and Hendryx, M. S. (2003). Social Capital and Trust in Providers. Social Science & Medicine, 57(7), 1195–1203. Https://Doi.Org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00494-X
7. Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. (2000). Attitudes and the Attitude-Behavior Relation: Reasoned and Automatic Processes. European Review of Social Psychology, 11(1), 1–33. https://doi.org/10.1080/14792779943000116
8. Akcomak, I. S. (2011). Social Capital of Social Capital Researchers. Review of Economics and Institutions, 2(2). https://doi.org/10.5202/rei.v2i2.32

9. Almutairi, S., Heller, M., & Yen, D. (2021). Reclaiming the Heterogeneity of the Arab States. Cross Cultural and Strategic Management, 28(1), 158–176. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCSM-09-2019-0170
10. Ayob, A. H., and Saiyed, A. A. (2020). Islam, Institutions and Entrepreneurship: Evidence from Muslim Populations Across Nations. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 13(4), 635–653. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMEFM-11-2019-0472
11. Barro, R.J., and McCleary, R.M. (2003). Religion and Economic Growth Across Countries, American Sociological Review, 68 (5), 760-781. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1519761
12. Berghe, W.V., Schachner, M., Sgarra, V., & Christie, N. (2020). The Association Between National Culture, Road Safety Performance and Support for Policy Measures. IATSS Research, 44 (3), 197 - 211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iatssr.2020.09.002
13. Berggren, N., and Bjørnskov, C. (2011). Is the Importance of Religion in Daily Life Related to Social Trust? Cross-Country and Cross-state Comparisons Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 80 (3), 459-480. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2011.05.002
14. Bernheim, D. (1994). A Theory of Conformity. Journal of Political Economy, 102 (5), 841-877. https://doi.org/10.1086/261957
15. Beugelsdijk, S., and Welzel, C. (2018). Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture: Synthesizing Hofstede with Inglehart. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 49(10), 1469–1505. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022118798505
16. Black, B. (2001). Culturally Coded? The Enigma of Flexible Labor Markets. Employee Relations, 23(4), 401–416. https://doi.org/10.1108/01425450110397882
17. Cáceres-Carrasco, F.R., Santos, F.J., & Guzmán, C. (2020). Social Capital, Personal Values, and Economic Development: Effect on Innovation. An International Analysis. The European Journal of Social Science Research, 33:1, 70-95. https://doi.org/10.1080/13511610.2019.1626701
18. Cammett, M., Diwan, I., & Vartanova, I. (2020). Insecurity and Political Values in the Arab World. Democratization, 27(5), 699–716. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2020.1723081
19. Christoforou, A. (2011). Social Capital Across European Countries Individual and Aggregate Determinants of Group Membership. The American Journal of Economics and Sociology, 70 (3), 699-728. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41329206
20. Chung, S., Choi, H., & Lee, S.S. (2014). Measuring Social Capital in the Republic of Korea with Mixed Methods: Application of Factor Analysis and Fuzzy-Set Ideal Type Approach. Social Indicators Research, 117 (1), 45-64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-013-0341-8
21. Delhey, J., and Newton, K. (2005). Predicting Cross-National Levels of Social Trust: Global pattern or Nordic Exceptionalism? European Sociological Review, 21, 311–327. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4621213
22. Dimitrova, B.V., Rosenbloom, B., & Andras, T. (2016). The Impact of National Cultural Values on Retail Structure: Evidence from the World Values Survey. International Marketing Review, 33 (6), 894-920. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMR-11-2014-0361
23. Ditsa, G., Alwahaishi, S., Alkobaisi, S., & Snášel, V. (2013). A Comparative Study of the Effects of Culture on the Deployment of Information Technology. International Journal of Technology Diffusion, 2(4), 12–24. https://doi.org/10.4018/jtd.2011100102 King, P.E., and Furrow, J.L (2004). Religion as a Resource for Positive Youth Development: Religion, Social Capital, and Moral Outcomes. Developmental Psychology, 40(5), 703-713. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.40.5.703
24. Fafchamps, M., and Minten, B. (2002). Social Capital and the Firm: Evidence from Agricultural Traders in Madagascar. In R. Puttnam (Author) & C. Grootaert & T. Van Bastelaer (Eds.), The Role of Social Capital in Development: An Empirical Assessment (pp. 125-154). Cambridge University Press. Doi:10.1017/CBO9780511492600.006
25. Fargher, S., Kesting, S., Lange, T., & Pacheco, G. (2008). Cultural Heritage and Job Satisfaction in Eastern and Western Europe. International Journal of Manpower, 29(7), 630–650. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437720810908938
26. Galbraith, C.S. and Galbraith, D.M. (2007). An Empirical Note on Entrepreneurial Activity, Intrinsic Religiosity and Economic Growth. Journal of Enterprising Communities: people and Places in the Global Economy, 1 (2), 188-201. DOI 10.1108/17506200710752601
27. Ghazinoory, S., Bitaab, A., & Lohrasbi, A. (2014). Social Capital and National Innovation System: A Cross-Country Analysis. Cross Cultural Management: An International Journal, 21 (4), 453-475. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCM-10-2013-0154
28. Giorgi, S., Lockwood, C., & Glynn, M. A. (2015). The Many Faces of Culture: Making Sense of Research on Culture in Organization Studies. Academy of Management Annals, 9(1): 1–54.
29. Glaeser, E.L., La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., & Schleifer, A. (2004). Do Institutions Cause Growth? Journal of Economic Growth, 9, 271–303. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:JOEG.0000038933.16398.ed
30. Gorodnichenko, Y., and Roland, G. (2011). Which Dimensions Matter for Long-Run Growth. American Economic Review, 101, 492-498.
31. Gouda, M., and Park, S.M. (2015). Religious Loyalty and Acceptance of Corruption. Journal of Economics and Statistics, 235 (2), 184-206. https://doi.org/10.1515/jbnst-2015-0206
32. Graafland, J., and Jong, E.D. (2021). The Moderating Role of Culture on the Benefits of Economic Freedom: Cross-country Analysis. Journal of Comparative Economics, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2021.09.005
33. Grinin, L., Korotayev, A., & Tausch, A. (2018). Islamism, Arab Spring, and the Future of Democracy, Perspectives on Development in the Middle East, and North Africa (MENA) Region. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-91077-2_12
34. Grootaert, C., and T. E. Van Bastelaer. (2002). The Role of Social Capital in Development: An Empirical Assessment. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511492600
35. Guagnano, G., and Santini, I. (2020). Active Citizenship in Europe: The Role of Social Capital. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 40(1–2), 79–98. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-05-2019-0100
36. Guo, Q., Liu, Z., & Tian, Q. (2018). Religiosity and Prosocial Behavior at National Level. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 12(1), 55–65. https://doi.org/10.1037/rel0000171
37. Haerpfer, C., Inglehart, R., Moreno, A., Welzel, C., Kizilova, K., Diez-Medrano J., M. Lagos, P. Norris, E. Ponarin & B. Puranen (Eds.). 2022. World Values Survey: Round Seven - Country-Pooled Datafile Version 4.0. Madrid, Spain & Vienna, Austria: JD Systems Institute & WVSA Secretariat. doi:10.14281/18241.18
38. House, R., Javidan, M., Hanges, P., & Dorfman, P. (2002). Understanding Cultures and Implicit Leadership Theories Across the Globe: An Introduction to Project GLOBE. Journal of World Business, 37(1), 3-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-9516(01)00069-4
39. Halman L., and Luijkx R. (2006). Social Capital in Contemporary Europe: Evidence from the European Social Survey, Portuguese Journal of Social Science, 5(1), 65-90. Doi: 10.1386/pjss.5.1.65/1
40. Han, S., Kim, H., and Lee, H. (2013). A Multilevel Analysis of the Compositional and Contextual Association of Social Capital and Subjective Well-Being in Seoul, South Korea. Social Indicators Research, 111(1), 185-202. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9990-7
41. Hanifan, J. L. (1916). The Rural School Community Center. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 67:130–138.
42. Harris, M., Khodour, N, Maani, A. & Saif, N. (2015). The Role of Social Capital in Shaping Management in Jordan: A Case Study on Umniah Company, Journal of Management Research, 7 (1), 1-21.
43. H’Madoun. (2011). Afraid Of God or Afraid of Man: How Religion Shapes Attitudes Toward Free Riding and Fraud. Working Papers, 32(0). https://hdl.handle.net/10067/897530151162165141
44. Hofmeyer, A., and Marck, P.B. (2008). Building Social Capital in Healthcare Organizations: Thinking Ecologically for Safer Care. Nursing Outlook, 56(4), 145-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.outlook.2008.01.001
45. Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J. & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind (3rd Edition.). McGraw-Hill.
46. Hofstede, G. (1983). National Cultures in Four Dimensions: A Research-Based Theory of Cultural Differences among Nations. International Studies of Management & Organization, 13(1–2), 46–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/00208825.1983.11656358
47. The 6 Dimensions Model of National Culture by Geert Hofstede. (2022). Retrieved 17 April 2022, from https://geerthofstede.com/culture-geert-hofstede-gert-jan-hofstede/6d-model-of-national-culture/
48. Irwin, K. (2009). Prosocial Behavior Across Cultures: The Effects of Institutional Versus Generalized Trust. Advances in Group Processes, 26, 165–198. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0882-6145(2009)0000026010
49. Jamal, A., and Tessler, M. (2008). The Democracy Barometers (Part II): Attitudes in the Arab World. Journal of Democracy 19(1), 97-111. doi:10.1353/jod.2008.0004
50. Jamal, A. (2007). When is Social Trust a Desirable Outcome? Examining Levels of Trust in The Arab World. Comparative Political Studies, 40, 1328–1349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414006291833
51. Jong, E. (2009). Culture And Economics: On Values, Economics, and International Business. Routledge.
52. Kaasa, A. (2019). Determinants of Individual-Level Social Capital: Culture and Personal Values. Journal of International Studies, 12(1), 9-32. doi:10.14254/2071- 8330.2019/12-1/
53. Kaasa, A. (2015). Culture, Religion, and Social Capital: Evidence from European Regions. International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 35(11–12), 772–794. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSSP-11-2014-0110
54. Kaasa, A. (2013). Religion and Social Capital: Evidence from European Countries. International Review of Sociology, 23(3), 578–596. https://doi.org/10.1080/03906701.2013.856162
55. Kaasa, A., and Parts, E. (2008). Individual-Level Determinants of Social Capital in Europe: Differences Between Country Groups. Acta Sociologica, 51(2), 145–168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699308090040
56. Kasmaoui, K., Mughal, M., & Bouoiyours, J. (2018). Does Trust influence Economic Growth? Evidence from the Arab World. Economics Bulletin, 38(2), 880–891.
57. Katz-Gerro, T., and Jaeger, M. M. (2012). Religion, Religiosity, and Cultural Stratification: Theoretical Links and Empirical Evidence. Research in the Sociology of Work, 23, 337–366. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0277-2833(2012)0000023017
58. Keele, L. (2005). Macro Measures and Mechanics of Social Capital. Political Analysis, 13 (2), 139-156. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25791802
59. Knack, S., and P. Keefer. (1997). Does Social Capital Have an Economic Payoff? A Cross-Country Investigation, Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(4), 1251–1288. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2951271
60. Knack, S. (2002). Social Capital, Growth, And Poverty: A Survey of Cross-Country Evidence. In Grootaert, C., Bastelaer, T, The Role of Social Capital in Development: An Empirical Assessment, 42-82. Cambridge University Press.
61. Krishna, A., and Uphoff, N. (2002). Mapping and Measuring Social Capital Through Assessment of Collective Action to Conserve and Develop Watershed in Rajasthan, India. In Grootaert, C., Bastelaer, T (Eds), The Role of Social Capital in Development: An Empirical Assessment, 85-124. Cambridge University Press.
62. Lam, P.Y. (2002). As The Flocks Gather: How Religion Affects Voluntary Association Membership. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41(3):405-22. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5906.00127
63. Lam, P.Y. (2006). Religion and Civic Culture: A Cross-National Study of Voluntary Association Membership. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 45(2), 177. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3838312
64. Lefebvrea, V.M., Sorensonb, D., Henchionb., M., & Xavier Gellynck, X. (2016). ‘‘Social capital and knowledge sharing performance of learning networks’’. International Journal of Information Management. 36, 570-579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2015.11.008
65. Letki, N. (2006). Investigating the Roots of Civic Morality: Trust, Social Capital, and Institutional Performance. Political Behavior, 28(4), 305-325. DOI: 10.1007/s11109-006-9013-6
66. Lu, P., Oh, J., Leahy, K. E., & Chopik, W. J. (2021). Friendship Importance Around the World: Links to Cultural Factors, Health, and Well-Being. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.570839
67. Manatschal, A., and Freitag, M. (2014). Reciprocity and Volunteering. Rationality and Society, 26(2), 208–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/10434631145237
68. Mattes, M. D., and Sloane, M. A.2015 Reflections on Hope and Its Implications for End-Of-Life Care. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 63(5), 993–996. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.13392
69. Minkov, M., Dutt, P., Schachner, M., Jandosova, J., Khassenbekov, Y., Morales, O., & Blagoev, V. (2019). What Would People Do with Their Money If They Were Rich? A Search for Hofstede Dimensions Across 52 Countries. Cross Cultural and Strategic Management, 26(1), 93–116. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCSM-11-2018-0193 Mladovsky, P., and Elias, M. (2008). A Conceptual Framework for Community-Based Health Insurance in Low-Income Countries: Social Capital and Economic Development. World Development, 36(4):590-607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.04.018
70. Mondéjar-Jiménez, J., Mesegaer-santamaria, L., & Vargas-vargas, M. (2011). An Empirical Assessment of Individual-Level Determinants of Social Capital in Central European Countries. Journal of East European Management Studies, 16(3), 237-250. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23281689
71. Mueller, S.L., & Thomas, A.S. (2001). Culture and Entrepreneurial Potential: A Nine-Country Study of Locus of Control and Innovativeness. Journal of Business Venturing, 16 (1), 51-75.
72. Narayan, D. (1999). Bonds and Bridges: Social Capital and Poverty. Policy Research Working Paper 2167. Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network. World Bank. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=623906
73. Nettler, R., and Marquand, D. (2001). Religion and Democracy, Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons.
74. Nieminen, T., Martelin, T., Koskinen, S., Simpura, J., Alanen, E., Harkanen, T., & Aromaa, A. (2008). ‘‘Measurement and Socio-Demographic Variation of Social Capital in A Large Population-Based Survey’’. Social Indicators Research. 85, 405-423. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9102-x
75. Nwankwo, S., Gbadamosi, A., & Ojo, S. (2012). Religion, Spirituality and Entrepreneurship. Society and Business Review, 7(2), 149–167. https://doi.org/10.1108/17465681211237619
76. Ostapenko, N. (2015). National Culture, Institutions, and Economic Growth. The Way of Influence on Productivity of Entrepreneurship. Journal of Entrepreneurship and Public Policy, 4(3), pp. 331-351. DOI 10.1108/JEPP-11-2014-0040
77. Portes, A. (1998). Social Capital: Its Origins and Applications in Modern Sociology. Annual Review of Sociology, (24), 1-24. http://www.jstor.org/stable/223472
78. Putnam, R. (1995). Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital. Journal of Democracy, 6(1), 65–78. Doi:10.1353/jod.1995.0002
79. Remizova, A., Rudnev, M., & Davidov, E. (2022). In Search of a Comparable Measure of Generalized Individual Religiosity in the World Values Survey. Sociological Methods and Research. https://doi.org/10.1177/00491241221077239
80. Sarason, S. B. (1974). The Psychological Sense of Community: Prospects for a Community Psychology. Jossey-Bass
81. Saukani, N., and Ismail, N. A. (2019). Identifying the Components of Social Capital by Categorical Principal Component Analysis (CATPCA). Social Indicators Research, 141(2), 631–655. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-018-1842-2
82. Schwartz, S.H., and Huismans, S. (1995). Value Priorities and Religiosity in Four Western Religions. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58 (2), 88-107. https://doi.org/10.2307/2787148
83. Sedeh, A.A., Abootorabi, H., & Zhang, J. (2021). National Social Capital Perceived Entrepreneurial Ability and Entrepreneurial Intentions. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behavior and Research, 27(2), 334–355. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEBR-10-2019-0616
84. Shirokanova, A. (2015). A Comparative Study of Work Ethic Among Muslims and Protestants: Multilevel Evidence. Social Compass, 62(4), 615–631. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768615601980
85. Smith, N. (2007). Religion, Altruism, and Social Capital, [online], http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1333438
86. Stadelmann-Steffen, I., and Freitag, M. (2011). Making Civil Society Work: Models of Democracy and Their Impact on Civic Engagement. Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Quarterly, 40(3), 526–551. https://doi.org/10.1177/0899764010362114
87. Stathopoulou, T., and Kostaki, A. (2014). Religiosity, Trust and Tolerance in Times of Recession. The Cases of Spain and Greece. In N.P. Petropoulos and G.O. Tsobanoglou (Eds.) The Debt Crisis in the Eurozone: Social Impacts. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
88. Stenslie, S., and Selvik, K. (2019). Elite Survival and The Arab Spring: The Cases of Tunisia and Egypt, Comparative Social Research, 34, 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1108/S0195-631020190000034002
89. Stjerno, S. (2012). Solidarity in Europe. The History of an Idea. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511490378
90. Stromsens, K. (2008). The Importance of Church Attendance and Membership of Religious Voluntary Organizations for the Formation of Social Capital. Social Compass, 55 (4), 478-496. https://doi.org/10.1177/003776860809723
91. Sulemana, I., and Issifu, I. (2015). An Empirical Examination of the Determinants of Trust in Ghana. International Journal of Social Economics. Emerald Group Holdings Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJSE-03-2014-0060
92. Tausch, A. (2018). Africa on the Maps of Global Values: Comparative Analyses, Based on Recent World Values Survey Data, SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3214715
93. Tausch, A. (2018a). The Return of Religious Antisemitism? The Evidence from World Values Survey Data, SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3286326
94. Tausch, A. (2016). The Civic Culture of The Arab World: A Comparative Analysis Based on World Values Survey Data, Middle East Review of International Affairs, 20(1),35-59. https://ssrn.com/abstract=2827232 or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2827232 Thomas, C. Y. (1996). Capital Markets, Financial Markets and Social Capital. Social and Economic Studies, 45(2 & 3), 1-23. https://www.jstor.org/stable/27866082
95. Triandis, H. C., and Gelfand, M. J. (1998). Converging Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Individualism and collectivism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(1), 118–128.
96. Van Oorschot, W., Arts, W., & Gelissen, J. (2006). Social Capital in Europe: Measurement and Social and Regional Distribution of a Multifaceted Phenomenon. Acta Sociologica, 49 (2), 149-167. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699306064770
97. Ul-Haq, S., Butt, I., Ahmed, Z., & Al-Said, F. T. (2020). Scale of Religiosity for Muslims: An Exploratory Study. Journal of Islamic Marketing, 11(6), 1201–1224. https://doi.org/10.1108/JIMA-03-2016-0018
98. Uphoff N., and Wijayaratna, C.M. (2000). Demonstrated Benefits from Social Capital: The Productivity of Farmer Organizations in Gal Oya, Sri Lanka. World Development, 28, 11, 1875- 1890. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00063-2 Van Oorschot, W., and Finsveen, E. (2009). The Welfare State and Social Capital Inequality: An Empirical Exploration Using Longitudinal European/World Values Study Data From 13 Western Welfare States’’. European Societies, 11(2), 189–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616690802155346
99. Van Oorshot, W., and Arts, W. (2005). Social Capital of European Welfare States: The Crowding out Hypothesis Revisited. Journal of European Social Policy, 15 (1), 5-26. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958928705049159
100. Vauclair, C. M. (2009). Measuring Cultural Values at the Individual-level: Considering Morality in Cross-cultural Values Research. Revista de Administracao Mackenzie, 10(3), 60–83. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1678-69712009000300005
101. Venaik, S., Zhu, Y., & Brewer, P. (2013). Looking into the future: Hofstede long term orientation versus GLOBE future orientation. Cross Cultural Management, 20(3), 361–385. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCM-02-2012-0014
102. Warter, I., and Warter, L. (2020). Culture and Tolerance in Romania. Evidence From World Values Survey. Journal of Intercultural Management and Ethics, 4, 87-120. https://doi.org/10.35478/jime.2020.4.08
103. Welzel, C., Inglehart, R., & Deutsch, F. (2005). Social capital, Voluntary Associations and Collective Action: Which Aspects of Social Capital have the Greatest ‘Civic’ Payoff? Journal of Civil Society, 1(2), 121–146. https://doi.org/10.1080/17448680500337475
104. Whiteley, P. F. (2000). Economic Growth and Social Capital. Political Studies. Vol (48), 443-466. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.002
105. Woolcock, M., and Narayan, D. (2000). Social Capital: Implications for Development Theory, Research, and Policy. 15(2), World Bank Research Observer, 225-249. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/961231468336675195/Social-capital-implications-for-development-theory-research-and-policy
106. Yeary, K. H. K., Ounpraseuth, S., Moore, P., Bursac, Z., & Greene, P. (2012). Religion, Social Capital, and Health. Review of Religious Research, 54(3), 331–347. http://www.jstor.org/stable/41940791
107. Yeganeh, H. (2015). Religiosity, Socio-economic Development and Work Values: A Cross-national Study. Journal of Management Development, 34(5), 585–600. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMD-06-2014-0066
108. Younsi, M., and Chakroun, M. (2016). Does Social Capital Determine Health? Empirical Evidence from MENA countries. The Social Science Journal, 53 (3), 371-379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2017.03.002