ETHNIC NATIONALISM AND CONSOCIATIONAL DEMOCRACY IN CYPRUS

Yıl 2016, Cilt: 9 Sayı: 2, 0 - 0, 07.10.2016

Pınar Erkem

https://doi.org/10.18221/bujss.33634

Cited By: 1

Öz

The 1960 Cyprus Republic, which had a bi-communal power-sharing system, could not have lasted for long and it turned from consociational democracy to majoritarian in 1963 after ethnic conflict. Attempts to find a solution to Cyprus problem still focus on ethnic power-sharing but the conditions and bi-communal relations prior to 1960 system, which are conducive to its failure, are not adequately consumed. The paper argues that, the reasons for the prolonged conflict derive from ethnic rivalry and lack of an overarching loyalty. Modernization, kin-state relations and colonial policies are the contributing factors. This paper aims to contribute to future institutional designs for not only Cyprus but for all divided societies. 

 KIBRIS’TA ETNİK MİLLİYETÇİLİK VE ORTAKLIKÇI DEMOKRASİ

 

İki topluluğun varlığını tanıyan ortaklıkçı demokrasiye dayalı 1960 Kıbrıs Cumhuriyeti etnik çatışmalar sonrası 1963 yılında son bularak çoğunlukçu demokrasi uygulamaya konuldu fakat Kıbrıs sorununa çözüm çabaları halen ortaklıkçı demokrasi üzerinde durmaktadır. 1960 sisteminin çökmesine yol açan topluluklar-arası sorunlar henüz tam olarak ortadan kaldırılamamıştır. Bu çalışmayla, Kıbrıs’ta güç paylaşımı sisteminin çökmesinin arkasındaki milliyetçiliğe dayalı nedenler incelenecektir. Bu çalışmanın iddiası, uzun suren Kıbrıs çatışmasının nedeninin etnik rekabetin varlığı ve ortak bağlayıcı bir değerin yokluğudur. 

Kaynakça

• Alasya, H.Fikret (1988), Tarihte Kıbrıs [Cyprus Throught History] Ankara, Kıbrıs Türk Kültür Derneği Genel Merkezi.
• An, Ahmet, (1997), Dinsel Topluluktan Ulusal Topluluğa Geçiş Süreci ve Kıbrıs Türk Liderliğinin Oluşması (1900-1942) [Transformation from a Religious Community to a National Community and Evolution of Turkish Cypriot Leadership (1900-1942)]. Nicosia: Galeri Kültür Yayınları.
• Anastasiou, Harry, (2008), The Broken Olive Branch, Nationalism, Ethnic Conflict, and the Quest for Peace in Cyprus, The Impasse of Ethnonationalism, New York, Syracuse University Press, (kindle version).
• Anderson, Benedict, (1995), Hayali Cemaatler [Imagined Communities]. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları.
• Asmussen, Jan, (Fall 2011), “Conspiracy Theories and Cypriot History: The Comfort of Commonly Perceived Enemies”, The Cyprus Review, Vol.23. No.2.
• Attalides, Michael A., (1979), Cyprus, Nationalism and International Politics, New York, St. Martin’s Press.
• Azar, Edward E., (1986), “Protracted International Conflicts: Ten Propositions”, in: International Conflict Resolution: Theory and Practice,
• Edward Azar, John Burton (Eds), Sussex, Wheatsheaf Books, pp.28-39.
• Bahcheli, Tozun and Sid Noel, (2013), “Ties that no longer bind: Greece,Turkey, and the Fading Allure of Ethnic Kinship in Cyprus”, Divided Nations and European Integration, Tristan Mabry, John McGarry, Margaret Moore, Brendan O’Leary (Eds.), University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Bahcheli, Tozun, (1990), Greek-Turkish Relations Since 1955. USA: Westview.
• Borowiec, Andrew, (2000), Cyprus: A Troubled Island. Westport-Connecticut-London: Praeger.
• Bose, Sumantra, (2007), Contested Lands, Israel-Palestine, Kashmir, Bosnia, Cyprus and Sri Lanka, Cambridge, Harvard University Press,
• Brown, Michael E., (1997), “The Causes of Internal Conflict”, in: Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict, Michael E.Brown, Owen R. Cote Jr., Sean M. Lynn-Jones, Steven Miller (eds), London, The MIT Press, pp.3-25.
• Bryant, Rebecca, (2004), Imagining the Modern: The Cultures of Nationalism in Cyprus, London, I.B.Tauris and Co.,
• CIA, (1957), Office of Current Intelligence, Washington, “Current Intelligence Bulletin”, Document No.28, 24 November 1957, Copy No.138.
• Clerides, Glafkos, (1989), Cyprus: My Deposition, Volume 1, Nicosia, Alithia Publishing.
• Connor, Walker, (1994), Ethnonationalism: The Quest for Understanding, Princeton New Jersey, Princeton University Press,
• Coughlan, Reed, (2000), “Cyprus: From Corporate Autonomy to the Search for Territorial Federalism”, in: Autonomy and Ethnicity, Negotiating Competing Claims in Multi-ethnic States, Yash Ghai (ed), Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, pp.219-241.
• Denktash, R.R., (1988), The Cyprus Triangle, New York, The Office of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus,
• Denktaş, Rauf R., (1997), Koloni İdaresinde Kıbrıs Türkleri, [Turkish Cypriots under Colonial Adminsitration] İstanbul, Akdeniz Haber Ajansı Yayınları,
• DGCP (Dictionary of Greek Cypriot Politics), (1960), Kıbrıs [Cyprus].
• Dobell, William, (1992), “Cyprus as a Regional Conflict”, p.46, in: Cyprus, A Regional Conflict and its Resolution, Norma Salem (ed), Great Britain, St. Martin’s Press, pp.44-61.
• Dodd, Clement H., (1999), “A Historical Overview”, in: Cyprus: The Need for New Perspectives, Clement H. Dodd (ed.), England, The Eothen Press, pp.1-15.
• Druşotis, Makarios, (2007), EOKA, Karanlık Yön, [EOKA: Dark Direction] Lefkoşa, Galeri Kültür Yayınları.
• Eckstein, Harry, (1966), Division and Cohesion in Democracy: A Study of Norway, Princeton, Princeton University Press.
• Egemen, Salih, (2006), Kıbrıslı Türkler Arasında Siyasal Liderlik,[Political Leadership Among Turkish Cypriots] Lefkoşe, Ateş Matbaacılık,
• Ehrlich, Thomas, (1974), Cyprus 1958-1967, International Crises and the Role of Law, Great Britain, Oxford University Press,
• Erim, Nihat, (1975), Bildiğim ve Gördüğüm Ölçüler İçinde Kıbrıs, [Cyprus As I Know and Witnessed] Ankara, Ajans-Türk Matbaacılık Sanayii,
• Fouskas, Vassilis K., Alex O. Tackie, (2009), Cyprus: The Post-Imperial Constitution, London and New York, Pluto Press,
• Gazioğlu, Ahmet C., (1996), Enosis Çemberinde Türkler, İngiliz Yönetiminde Kıbrıs II, (1878-1952) [Turkish In The Enosis Chamber: Cyprus under British Rule II (1878-1952)] İstanbul: Kıbrıs Araştırma ve Yayın Merkezi.
• Guelke, Adrian, (2012), Politics in Deeply Divided Societies. UK: Polity Press.
• Heacock, Roger, (Fall 2011), “The Framing of Empire: Cyprus and Cypriots through British Eyes, 1878-1960”, The Cyprus Review, Vol.23, No.2, (pp.21-37).
• Hill, Sir George, (1952), A History of Cyprus, Volume IV, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press,
• Horowitz, Donald, (April 2014), “Ethnic Power Sharing: Three Big Problems”, Journal of Democracy, Vol.25, Nr.2, pp.5-20.
• Inacik, Halil, (1969), Ottoman Policy and Administration in Cyprus after the Conquest, Ankara, Ayyıldız Matbaası.
• Ker-Lindsay, James, (2011), The Cyprus Problem, What everyone needs to know, Oxford and New York, Oxford University Press.
• Kızılyürek, Niyazi, (2001), Kıbrıs Sorununda İç ve Dış Etkenler, [Domestic and Foreign Factors in Cyprus Problem] İkinci Basım, Lefkoşa, Işık Kitabevi,
• Kızılyürek, Niyazi, (2002), Milliyetçilik Kıskacında Kıbrıs, [Cyprus Constricted Under Nationalsim] İstanbul, İletişim,
• Kızılyürek, Niyazi, (2009), “Federalizm ve Kıbrıs’ta Federal Devlet” [Federalism and Federal State in Cyprus], p.61, in: Kıbrıs’ta Federalizm: Öznesini Arayan Siyaset,[Federalism in Cyprus: Policy Looking for a Subject] Niyazi Kızılyürek, Tufan Erhürman, Lefkoşa, Işık Kitabevi, pp.8-99.
• Kızılyürek, Niyazi, (2011), Paşalar ve Papazlar: Kıbrıs’ta Hegemonya, [Pashas and Priests: Hegemony in Cyprus] İkinci Basım, İstanbul, Khora-Kalkedon,
• Kitromilides, Paschalis M., (Jan.1990), “Greek Irredentism in Asia Minor and Cyprus”, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.26, No.1, pp.3-17.
• Kyriakides, Stanley, (1968), Cyprus: Constitutionalism and Crisis Government, Philadelphia, University of Pennsylvania Press,
• Lijphart, Arend, (1968), The Politics of Accomodation: Pluralism and Democracy in the Netherlands. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Lijphart, Arend, (1977), Democracy in Plural Societies: A Comparative Exploration. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.
• Loizos, Peter, (December 1988), “Intercommunal Killing in Cyprus”, Man, New Series, Volume 23, Issue 4, ss.639-653.
• Makarios Druşotis, (2006), Kıbrıs, 1970-1974, EOKA B, Yunan Darbesi ve Türk İstilası [Cyprus 1970-1974: EOKA-B, Greek Coup and Turkish Invasion] Lefkoşa, Galeri Kültür Yayınları,
• Mayes, Stanley, (1981), Makarios, A Biography, London, Macmillan,
• McGarry, John, Brendan O’Leary, (1995), Explaining Northern Ireland, Oxford, Blackwell.
• Melakopides, Costas, (1996), Peace in Cyprus: Time for a Comprehensive Initiative, Kingston, Queen’s University.
• Michael, Michalis Stavrou, (2011), Resolving the Cyprus Conflict: Negotating History, New York, Palgrave MacMillan.
• MRG (Minority Rights Group), (1976), Cyprus, Report No.30, London, Minority Rights Group.
• National Archives at College Park, MD, (20 February 1960), RG 59 General Records of the Department of State, NND 989591, Lot no.66D277, Entry 5257, Box no.1, Incoming Telegram, Document No.362, Nicosia to Secretary of State.
• National Archives at College Park, MD, (2 April 1960), RG 59 General Records of the Department of State, NND 989591, Lot no.66D277, Entry 5257, Box no.1, Incoming Telegram, Document No.416, Nicosia to Secretary of State.
• Nevzat, Altay, Mete Hatay, (2009), “Politics, Society and the Decline of Islam in Cyprus: From the Ottoman Era to the Twenty-First Century”, Middle Eastern Studies, Vol.45, No.6, (pp.911-933).
• Nevzat, Altay, (Fall 2011), “Ronald Storrs and Mısırlızade Necati: The Governor’s Encounter with the ‘Thirteenth Greek’”, The Cyprus Review, Vol.23, No.2, (pp.77-107).
• Nevzat, Altay, (2005), Nationalism amongst the Turks of Cyprus: The First Wave. Oulu: Oulu University Press.
• Nordlinger, Eric A., (1972), Conflict Regulation in Divided Societies, USA, Harvard University.
• Özgür, Özdemir A., (2000), Hayatımda Kıbrıs, Bir Kıbrıslı Türk Diplomatın Tanıklığı, [Cyprus in My Life: A Turkish Cypriot Diplomat’s Testimony] Lefkoşa, Galeri Kültür Yayınları,
• Özkul, Ali Efdal, (2006), Kıbrıs’ın Sosyo-Ekonomik Tarihi, 1726-1750 [Socio-Economic History of Cyprus 1726-1750]. İstanbul: İletişim.
• Pollis, Adamantia, (July 1973), “Intergroup Conflict and British Colonial Policy: The Case of Cyprus”, Comparative Politics, Vol.5, No.4, (pp.575-599).
• Rooksby, Ed., (2012), “Cyprus and the West: A Critical Perspective on British and US Foreign Policy and Strategic Interests in Cyprus”, in: Beyond a Divided Cyprus, A State and Society in Transformation, Nicos Trimikliniotis, Umut Bozkurt (eds), New York, Palgrave Macmillan, pp.83-98.
• Rubenstein, Richard E., (1999), “Conflict Resolution and the Structural Sources of Conflict”, in: Conflict Resolution: Dynamics, Process and Structure, Ho-won Jeong (ed.), USA, Ashgate, pp.173-196.
• Salih, Halil İbrahim, (1968), Cyprus: An Analysis of Cypriot Political Discord, New York, Theo Gaus’ Sons.
• Sisk, Timothy D., (1996), Power Sharing and International Mediation in Ethnic Conflicts, Washington DC, United States Institute of Peace.
• Sonyel, Salahi R., (1997), Cyprus: The Destruction of a Republic, British Documents 1960-1965, England, The Eothen Press,
• Sonyel, Salahi R., (1999), “New Light on the Genesis of the Conflict: British Documents 1960-1967”, in: Cyprus: The Need for New Perspectives, Clement H. Dodd (ed.), England, The Eothen Press, pp. 16-53.
• Sömek, Emine, (2012), Kıbrıs Türkünün Milli Mücadelesi: Kıbrıs Türk Mücahidi Dr.Selçuk Sömek ve Ailesinin Anıları [National Struggle of Turkish Cypriot: Memoirs of a Turkish Cypriot Freedom Fighter]. İstanbul, Bizim Kitaplar.
• Sönmezoğlu, Faruk, (1991), Tarafların Tutum ve Tezleri Açısından Kıbrıs Sorunu, [Cyprus Problem in terms of the Attitudes and Thesis of the Parties]. İstanbul:İÜ Basımevi.
• Stavenhagen, Rodolfo, (1996), Ethnic Conflicts and the Nation-State, London and New York, MacMillan-St. Martin’s Press,
• Stavrinides, Zenon, (1976), The Cyprus Conflict, National Identity and Statehood.
• Stavrinides, Zenon, (1999), “Greek Cypriot Perceptions”, in: Cyprus, The Need for New Perspectives, Clement H. Dodd (ed.), England, The Eothen Press, ss.54-96.
• Stephens, Robert, (1966), Cyprus: A Place of Arms: Power Politics and Ethnic Conflict in the Eastern Mediterranean, Great Britain, Frederick A. Praeger Inc.,
• Tocci, Nathalie, Tamara Kovziridze, (2004), “Cyprus”, in: Europeanization and Conflict Resolution, Case Studies from the European Periphery, Bruno Coppieters, Michael Emerson, Michel Huysseune, Tamara Kovziridze, Gergana Noutcheva, Nathalie Tocci, Marius Vahl (eds), Gent, Academia Press, pp.63-106.
• Trimikliniotis, Nicos, Umut Bozkurt, (2012), “Rethinking the Postcolonial Cypriot Statehood: The Cyprus Problem, Class Struggles, and Ethnic Conflict”, in: Beyond a Divided Cyprus, A State and Society in Transformation, Nicos Trimikliniotis, Umut Bozkurt (eds), New York, Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 47-66.
• Volkan, Vamık D., (2008), Kıbrıs: Savaş ve Uyum, Çatışan İki Etnik Grubun Psikanalitik Tarihi, [Cyprus: War and Harmony: A Psychoanalytic History of Two Conflicting Ethnic Group] İstanbul, Everest.
• Watts, Ronald L., (2007), “Multinational federations in comparative perspective”, in: Multinational Federations, Michael Burgess and John Pinder (Eds), London and New York, Routledge, pp.225-247.
• Weiner, Myron, (1970), “Political and Social Integration: Forms and Strategies”, in: Politics and Society Studies in Comparative Sociology,
• Eric A. Nordlinger (ed.), New Jersey, Prentice-Hall, pp.197-209.
• Xydis, Stephen G., (1973), Cyprus: Reluctant Republic. The Hague, Mouton.
• Yakinthou, Christalla, (2009), Political Settlements in Divided Societies, Consociationalism and Cyprus. Great Britain: Palgrave Macmillan.