The Effects of Hypertext Structure, Presentation and Instruction Types on Perceived Disorientation and Recall Performances

Abstract

Navigation in web-based environments is one of the challenging tasks for hypertext readers. During reading, hypertext readers are reported to allocate their cognitive resources to meet the cognitive demands and are often reported to get disoriented while navigating through hyperlinks. Meanwhile, readers’ understanding of hypertext structures and memories interact while navigating between pages. Yet, as researchers pointed out and the correlations are taken into account, there are no research studies that have directly explored their factorial patterns within the context of hypertext reading process. Therefore, the purpose of this study is both to investigate the confirmatory study of a Perceived Disorientation Scale (PDS), and to investigate the effects of hypertext structure, presentation type, and instruction type on readers’ implicit and explicit memory performances and their perceived disorientation. Instruction type and presentation type main effects were found to be significant only on WSC scores (memory scores). However, there was no significant main effect of hypertext structure observed for neither WSC nor PDS-TR scores. The interaction effect between hypertext structure and presentation type was significant only on PDS-TR scores, yet no other interaction effects were significant. Potential implications of these results for e-learning providers and content developers in hypertext are discussed, followed with further research questions.

Keywords

• Disorientation, Hypertext navigation, Hypertext reading, Implicit memory, Explicit memory

Kaynakça

1. Altun, A. (2000). Patterns in cognitive processes and strategies in hypertext reading: A case study of two experienced computer users. Journal of Educational Hypermedia and Multimedia, 9, 32- 48.
2. Altun, A. (2003). Understanding hypertext in the context of reading on the web: Language learners’ experience. Current Issues in Education, 6(5). Available online at: http://cie.ed.asu.edu/ volume6/number9/
3. Ahuja, J. S. & Webster, J. (2001). Perceived disorientation: An examination of a new measure to assess web design effectiveness. Interacting with Computers, 14 (1), 15-29.
4. Alomyan, H. (2004). Individual differences: Implications for web-based learning design. International Education, 4(4), 188-96.
5. Amadieu, F., van Gog, T., Paas, F., Tricot, A., & Mariné, C. (2009). Effects of prior knowledge and concept-map structure on disorientation, cognitive load, and learning. Learning and Instruction, 19(5), 376-386.
6. Anooshian, L.J. (1999). Understanding age differences in memory: Disentangling conscious and unconscious processes. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 23(1), 1–18.
7. Boechler, P. M. (2001). How spatial is Hyperspace? Interacting with hypertext documents: Cognitive processes and concepts. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 4(1), 23-46.
8. DeStefano D. & LeFevre, J. (2007). Cognitive load in hypertext reading: A review. Computers in Human Behaviour, 23, 1616–1641.

9. Dillon A. (2000). Designing a Better Learning Environment with the Web: Problems and Prospects. Cyberpsychology and Behavior, 3(1), 97-101.
10. Dillon, A. & Gabbard, R. (1998). Hypermedia as an educational technology: A review of the quantitative research literature on learner comprehension, control, and style. Review of Educational Research, 68(3), 322 –349.
11. Edwards, D. M. & Hardman, L. (1989). 'Lost in hyperspace': Cognitive mapping and navigation in a hypertext environment. In R. McAleese (Ed.), Hypertext: Theory into practice (pp.105-125). Norwood, NJ: ABLEX.
12. Fleischman, D. A., Wilson, R. S, Gabrieli, J. D. E., Schneider, J. A, Bienias, J. L., & Bennett, D. A. (2005). Implicit memory and Alzheimer’s disease. Brain, 128, 2006-2015.
13. Foss, C. L.(1989). Tools for reading and browsing hypertext. Information Processing and Management, 25, 407-18.
14. Gamberini, L. & Bussolon, S. (2001). Human navigation in electronic environments. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 4(1), 57-65.
15. Goshen-Gottstein, Y. & Kempinsky, H. (2001). Probing memory with conceptual cues at multiple retention intervals: A comparison of forgetting rates on implicit and explicit tests. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 8(1), 139-46.
16. Graf, P. & Schacter, D. L. (1985). Implicit and explicit memory for new associations in normal and amnesic subjects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 11(3), 501–518.
17. Hamilton, M. & Rajaram, S. (2001). The concreteness effect in implicit and explicit memory tests. Journal of Memory and Language, 44, 96–117.
18. Karakas, S. & Yalin, A. (1995). Normative study of Visual Aural Digit Span Test Form-B on Turkish adolescents and adults (ages 13-54). Turkish Journal of Psychology, 10(34), 20-31.
19. Kim, H. & Hirtle, S. C. (1995). Spatial metaphors and disorientation in hypertext browsing. Behaviour & Information Technology, 14, 239-250.
20. Kim, M. S., Kim, Y. Y., Kim, F. N., Lee, K. J., Ha, T. H., & Kwon, J. S. (2005). Implicit and explicit memory in patients with obsessive-compulsive disorder: An event-related potential study. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 40(6), 541-549.
21. Koppitz, E. M. (1977). The visual aural digit span test. New York: Grune and Stratton.
22. Light, L. L., Prull, M. W, LaVoie, D. J., & Healy, M. R. (2000) Dual-process theories of memory in old age. In: T. J. Perfect and E. A. Maylor (Eds.), Models of cognitive aging: Debates in Psychology. London: Oxford University Press.
23. Markowitch, H. J. (2000). Memory and Amnesia. In M.M. Mesulam (Ed.), Principles of behavioral and cognitive neurology. New York: Oxford University Press.
24. McDonald, S. & Stevenson, R. J. (1998). Effects of text structure and prior knowledge of the learner on navigation in hypertext, Human Factors, 40(1), 18-27.
25. Nielsen, J. (1990). Hypertext and hypermedia. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
26. Nishimura, T. & Takeda, M. (2000). The neural basis of perceptual and conceptual word priming: A PET study. Cortex, 36, 59–69.
27. Oulasvirta, A. (2004). Task demands and memory in web interaction: A levels of processing approach. Interacting with Computers, 16(2), 217-241.
28. Oulasvirta, A., Kärkkäinen, L., & Laarni, J. (2005). Expectations and memory in link search. Computers in Human Behavior, 21, 773–789.
29. Pauli, P., Dengler, W., & Wiedemann, G. (2004). Implicit and explicit memory processes in panic patients as reflected in behavioral and electrophysiological measures. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 36(2): 111-127.
30. Pilotti, M., Meade, M.L., & Gallo, D.A. (2003). Implicit and explicit measures of memory for perceptual information in young adults, healthy older adults, and patients with Alzheimer’s Disease. Experimental Aging Research, 29, 15-32.
31. Rasch, T. & Schnotz, W. (2009). Interactive and non-interactive pictures in multimedia learning environments: Effects on learning outcomes and learning efficiency. Learning and Instruction, 19(5), 411-422.
32. Rouet, J. F. (2003). What was I looking for? The influence of task specificity and prior knowledge on students’ search strategies in hypertext. Interacting with Computers, 15, 409–428.
33. Rouet, J.F. & Levonen, J. (1996). Studying and learning with nonlinear documents: Empirical studies and their implications. In J. F. Rouet, J. J. Levonen, A. Dillon, and R. Spiro (Eds.). Hypertext and Cognition (pp.9-23). Mahvah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
34. Schacter, D. L. (1987). Implicit memory: History and current status. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 13(3), 501–18.
35. Shapiro, A. & Niederhauser, D. (2004). Learning from hypertext: Research issues and findings. In: D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp.605-620). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
36. Squire, L. R. (1992). Memory and the hippocampus: A synthesis from findings with rats, monkeys, and humans. Psychological Review, 99(2), 192–231.
37. Tekcan, A. İ, and Goz, İ. (2005). Turkce kelime normlari (Turkish vocabulary norms). İstanbul: Bosphorus University Press.
38. Yasuno, F., Nishikawa, T., Tokunaga, H., Yoshiyama, K., Nakagawa, Y., Ikejiri, Y., Oku, N., Hashikawa. K., Tanabe, H., Shinozaki, K., Sugita, Y., Cress, U., & Knabel, O. B. (2003). Previews in hypertexts: Effects on navigation and knowledge acquisition. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19(4), 517-527.
39. Correspondence: Arif Altun, Professor, Department of Computer Education and Instructional
40. Technologies, Faculty of Education, Hacettepe University, Ankara, Turkey