Examining the Relationship Between Maternal Employment Guilt and Internalized Sexism in Mothers with Preschool Children

Öz

Motherhood is an important part of gender inequality discussions and the basis of the unequal division of labor based on gender is mostly based on motherhood roles. It is stated that employed women have a high level of work-family conflict, perceive themselves to be far from being the "ideal" mother, and have higher levels of guilt. The internalization of sexist standards is thought to be effective in triggering and increasing feelings of guilt. In this context, this research sought to examine the sense of guilt felt by working mothers of pre-school children and the relationship of this feeling with internalized sexism and sociodemographic variables. 209 working mothers of pre-school children either in a part-time or full-time job participated in the study. Descriptive analysis, correlation analysis, and regression analysis were employed in the study. The results showed that the mother’s guilt was positively related to the sub-dimensions of internalized sexism. Specifically, internalized powerlessness/loss of self and self-objectification from sub-dimensions of internalized sexism significantly predicted the mother’s guilt. Additionally, weekly working hours and the number of children also predicted the mother’s guilt. These results are important in terms of revealing the risks caused by the internalization of sexist norms that put serious pressure on mothers. Efforts towards gender equality are of great importance in increasing the quality of life for mothers in the family life and workplace.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Mother Employment Guilt
• Internalized Sexism
• Loss of Self
• Self-Objectification
• Mother Role

Okul öncesi Dönemde Çocuğu Olan Annelerde Anne İstihdam Suçluluğu ve İçselleştirilmiş Cinsiyetçilik Arasındaki İlişkinin İncelenmesi

Öz

Annelik toplumsal cinsiyet eşitsizliği tartışmalarında önemli bir yere sahiptir ve cinsiyete dayalı eşitsiz iş bölümünün temeli çoğunlukla annelik rollerine dayandırılmaktadır. Özellikle çalışan, yüksek düzeyde iş - aile çatışması yaşayan ve kendilerini “ideal” anne olmaktan oldukça uzak algılayan kadınların daha yüksek düzeyde suçluluk duydukları belirtilmektedir. Yaşanan suçluluk duygularında ise cinsiyetçi standartların içselleştirilmesinin etkili olduğu düşünülmektedir. Bu çerçevede araştırmamızın amacı, okul öncesi dönemde çocuğu olan annelerin istihdama ilişkin yaşadıkları suçluluk duygularının içselleştirilmiş cinsiyetçilik ve sosyo - demografik değişkenler açısından incelenmesidir. Araştırma, betimsel ve ilişkisel bir araştırma olarak tasarlanmıştır. Araştırmaya bir işte çalışan ve okul öncesi dönemde çocuğu bulunan 209 anne katılmıştır. Çalışmada betimsel analizler, korelasyon ve çoklu doğrusal regresyon analizi kullanılmıştır. Sonuçlar, anne istihdam suçluluğunun içselleştirilmiş cinsiyetçiliğin benlik kaybı/ içselleştirilmiş güçsüzlük, kendini nesneleştirme, derogasyon ve erkeği önceleme alt boyutlarıyla pozitif yönde ilişkili olduğunu ve içselleştirilmiş cinsiyetçilik içerisinde de anne istihdam suçluluğunu anlamlı düzeyde yordayan boyutların benlik kaybı / içselleştirilmiş güçsüzlük ve kendini nesneleştirme olduğunu göstermiştir. Yine haftalık çalışma saati ve çocuk sayısı da istihdam suçluluğunu yordamaktadır. Bu sonuçlar annelerin üzerinde ciddi bir baskı yaratan cinsiyetçi normların içselleştirilmesinin yarattığı riskleri ortaya çıkarması açısından önem taşımaktadır. Annelerin özel ve kamusal alandaki hayat kalitesini arttırma konusunda cinsiyet eşitliğine yönelik çabalar büyük önem taşımaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Anne İstihdam Suçluluğu
• İçselleştirilmiş Cinsiyetçilik
• Benlik Kaybı
• Kendini Nesneleştirme
• Anne Rolü

Kaynakça

1. Aarntzen, L., Derk, B., van Steenbergen E., Ryan M., & van der Lippe T. (2019). Workfamily guilt as a straitjacket: An interview and diary study on consequences of mothers’ work-family guilt. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 115, 1–15. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2019.103336
2. Ali, D. S., Hall, M. E. L., Anderson, T. L., & Willingham, M. M. (2013). “I became a mom”: Identity changes in mothers receiving public assistance. Journal of Social Service Research, 39, 587–605. https://doi.org/10.1080/01488376.2013.801391
3. Badinter, E. (2010). Kadınlık mı, annelik mi? (A. Ekmekci, Çev.). İletişim Yayınları.
4. Baraitser, L. (2006). Oi mother, keep ye’ hair on! Impossible transformations of maternal subjectivity. Studies in Gender and Sexuality, 7, 217–238. https://doi.org/10.2513/s15240657sgs0703_1
5. Barnett, W. S. (2001). School reform proposals: The research evidence. Education Policy Studies Laboratory, University of Arizona.
6. Baumeister, R. F., Stillwell, A. M., & Heatherton, T. F. (1994). Guilt: An interpersonal approach. Psychological Bulletin, 115(2), 243–267. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.115.2.243
7. Bearman, S., & Amrhein, M. (2014). Girls, women, and internalized sexism. J. R. David (Ed.), Internalized oppression: The psychology of marginalized groups (pp. 191–225). Springer Publishing Company.
8. Bearman, S., Korobov, N., & Thorne, A. (2009). The fabric of internalized sexism. Journal of Integrated Social Sciences, 1(1), 10–47.

9. Beauvoir, S. (1993). Kadın ikinci cins “evlilik çağı” (B. Onursal, Çev.). Payel Yayınevi.
10. Beech, O. D., Kaufmann, L., & Anderson, J. (2020). A systematic literature review exploring objectification and motherhood. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 44(4), 521–538. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684320949810
11. Borelli, J. L., Nelson, S. K., River, L. M., Birken, S. A., & Moss-Racusin, C. (2017). Gender differences in work-family guilt in parents of young children. Sex Roles, 76(5), 356–368. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-016-0579-0
12. Bozkur, B. (2020). Developing Internalized Sexism Scale for Women: A validity and reliability study. International Journal of Eurasian Education and Culture, 5(11), 1981–2028. http://dx.doi.org/10.35826/ijoecc.289
13. Bozkur, B., & Taylan, A. (2020). Medyada annelik temsili: Anaakım ve alternatif medyada anneliğin sunumuna yönelik karşılaştırma. Akdeniz Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 34, 45–65. https://doi.org/10.31123/akil.781227
14. Capodilupo, C. M. (2017). Internalized sexism. In K. L. Nadal (Ed.), The SAGE encyclopedia of psychology and gender (pp. 949–951). SAGE Publications
15. Cartwright, L. K. (1978). Career satisfaction and role harmony in a sam- ple of young women physicians. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 12(2), 184–196. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(78)90033-7
16. Chodorow, N. J. (1978). The reproduction of mothering: Psychoanalysis and the sociology of gender. Univ of California Press.
17. Collins, C. (2021). Is maternal guilt a cross-national experience?. Qualitative Sociology, 44(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11133-020-09451-2
18. Constantinou, G., Varela, S., & Buckby, B. (2021). Reviewing the experiences of maternal guilt–the “Motherhood Myth” influence. Health Care for Women International, 42(4-6), 852–876. https://doi.org/10.1080/07399332.2020.1835917
19. Douglas, S. J., & Michaels, M. (2005). The mommy myth: The idealization of motherhood and how it has undermined women. Free Press.
20. Dunford, E., & Granger, C. (2017). Maternal guilt and shame: Relationship to postnatal depression and attitudes towards help-seeking. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 26(6), 1692–1701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-017-0690-z
21. Elvin‐Nowak, Y. (1999). The meaning of guilt: A phenomenological description of employed mothers' experiences of guilt. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 40(1), 73–83. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9450.00100
22. Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS. Sage Publication.
23. George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). Frequencies. SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. Allyn & Bacon.
24. Glavin, P., Schieman, S., & Reid, S. (2011). Boundary-spanning work demands and their consequences for guilt and psychological distress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(1), 43–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510395023
25. Glenn, E. N. (1994). Social constructions of mothering: A thematic overview. In E. Glenn, N. Glenn, G. Chang, & L. Forcey (Eds.), Mothering: Ideology, experience, and agency (pp. 1–29). Routledge.
26. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2014). Multivariate data analysis. Pearson.
27. Henderson, A., Harmon, S., & Newman, H. (2016). The price mothers pay, even when they are not buying it: Mental health consequences of idealized motherhood. Sex Roles, 74(11), 512–526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0534-5
28. kaNdlondlo, M. (2011). When sacrificing self is the only way out: A tribute to my mother. Agenda, 25(1), 15–21. https://doi.org/10.1080/10130950.2011.575576
29. Keith, P. M., & Schafer, R. B. (1980). Role strain and depression in two- job families. Family Relations, 29, 83–488. https://doi.org/10.2307/584462
30. Liss, M., Schiffrin, H. H., & Rizzo, K. M. (2013). Maternal guilt and shame: The role of self-discrepancy and fear of negative evaluation. Jornal of Child Family Studies, 22, 1112–1119 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-012-9673-2
31. Loeb, S., Fuller, B., Kagan, S. L., & Carrol, B. (2004). Child care in poor communities: Early learning effects of type, quality, and stability. Child Development, 75(1), 47−65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2004.00653.x
32. Maclean, E. I., Andrew, B., & Eivers, A. (2021). The motherload: Predicting experiences of work-interfering-with-family guilt in working mothers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 30(1), 169–181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-020-01852-9
33. Mann, M. B., & Thornburg, K. R. (1987). Guilt of working women with infants and toddlers in day care. Early Child Development and Care, 27(3), 451–464. https://doi.org/10.1080/0300443870270304
34. Marsiglio, W., Day, R., & Lamb, M. E. (2000). Exploring fatherhood diversity: Implications for conceptualizing father involvement. Marriage and the Family Review, 29, 269–293. https://doi.org/10.1300/J002v29n04_03
35. Meeussen, L., & Van Laar, C. (2018). Feeling pressure to be a perfect mother relates to parental burnout and career ambitions. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02113
36. Neff, T. C. (2021). Moms aren't people: Constructing a theory of maternal objectification [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Biola University.
37. Nicolson, P. (1999). Loss, happiness, and postpartum depression: The ultimate paradox. Canadian Psychology, 40, 162–178. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0086834
38. O'Brien, H., & Lynn, D. (2010). New momism. In A. O’reilly (Ed.), Encyclopedia of motherhood (pp. 915-916). SAGE Publications.
39. Öke Karakaya, P., Sönmez, S., & Aşık, E. (2021). A phenomenological study of nurses' experiences with maternal guilt in Turkey. Journal of Nursing Management, 29(8), 2515–2522. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13401
40. Ollo-López, A., & Goñi-Legaz, S. (2017). Differences in work–family conflict: Which individual and national factors explain them? The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 28(3), 499–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/09585192.2015.1118141
41. Poduval, J., & Poduval, M. (2009). Working mothers: How much working, how much mothers, and where is the womanhood?. Mens Sana Monographs, 7(1), 63–79. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-1229.41799
42. Rich, A. (1995). Of woman born: Motherhood as experience and institution. WW Norton &Company.
43. Rotkirch, A., & Janhunen, K. (2010). Maternal guilt. Evolutionary Psychology, 8(1), 90–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/147470491000800108
44. Salmela-Aro, K., Nurmi, J., Saisto, T., & Halmesmäki, E. (2000). Women's and men's personal goals during the transition to parenthood. Journal of Family Psychology, 14, 171–186. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.14.2.171
45. Sánchez-Rodríguez, R., Orsini, É., Laflaquière, E., Callahan, S., & Séjourné, N. (2019). Depression, anxiety, and guilt in mothers with burnout of preschool and school-aged children: Insight from a cluster analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 259, 244–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.08.031
46. Shonkoff, J. P., & Phillips, D. A. (Eds.). (2000). From neurons to neighborhoods: The science of early childhood development. National Academy Press.
47. Steinberg, Z. (2005). Donning the mask of motherhood: A defensive strategy, a developmental search. Studies in Gender and Sexuality, 6, 173–198. https://doi.org/10.1080/15240650609349273
48. Sutherland, J. A. (2010a). Mothering, guilt and shame. Sociology Compass, 4(5), 310–321. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9020.2010.00283.x
49. Sutherland, J. A. (2010b). Guilt. In A. O’Reilly (Ed.), Encyclopedia of motherhood (pp. 471–475). Sage Publications.
50. Swim, J. K., & Hyers, L. L. (2009). Sexism. In T. D. Nelson (Ed.), Handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination (pp. 407–430). Psychology Press.
51. Yüce-Selvi, Ü., & Kantaş, Ö. (2019). The psychometric evaluation of the maternal employment guilt scale: A development and validation study. The Journal of Industrial Relations & Human Resources, 21(1), 27–52. https://doi.org/10.4026/isguc.543449