VERGİ GELİRLERİ VE DEMOKRASİ ARASINDAKİ İLİŞKİ: YÜKSELEN VE GELİŞMEKTE OLAN ÜLKELER ÜZERİNE BİR UYGULAMA

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 33 Sayı: 2, 854 - 871, 20.10.2024

Şeref Can Serin , Murat Demir , Abdulvahap Uluç

https://doi.org/10.35379/cusosbil.1498304

Öz

Vergiler, devletlerin kamusal mal ve hizmet sunumunu gerçekleştirmek amacıyla egemenlik gücüne dayalı olarak tahsil ettikleri, karşılıksız gelirlerdir. Ancak vergiler başlangıçta devletlerin salt egemenlik gücüne dayandırılırken zaman içerisinde temsil yetkisinden doğan bir yetki haline evrilmiştir. Bu kapsamda vergilendirme ve demokrasi arasındaki bağlantı, mali sosyoloji literatürünün önemli tartışma konularından bir tanesi haline gelmiştir. 13. yüzyıldan itibaren iktisadi ve siyasi reform hareketlerine yön veren arayışlar, temsilsiz vergilendirmeye karşı başlatılan isyanlar, modern kamu mali yapısının evriminde önemli rol oynayarak temsiliyet ve vergilendirme gibi kavramların şekillenmesini sağlamıştır. Söz konusu teorik tartışmalara paralel olarak bir ülkedeki yönetim rejiminin tipolojisinin ölçülme girişimleri sonucunda, demokrasi ve vergilendirme arasındaki bağlantıyı inceleyen geniş bir ampirik literatür oluşmuştur. Ampirik bulgular gelişmiş ekonomiler açısından demokratikleşme ve vergilendirme arasında pozitif bir ilişkinin bulunduğuna, ancak gelişmekte olan ülkeler açısından bu bağlantının muğlak olduğuna işaret etmektedir. Bu çalışma literatürdeki bu boşluğu dikkate alır boyutta, 41 yükselen ve gelişmekte olan ülke için 2000-2018 döneminde vergi gelirleri üzerinde, demokratikleşme, kentlileşme ve kurumsal kalite göstergelerinin etkilerini dinamik panel veri analiz teknikleriyle incelenmektedir. Bulgularımız yükselen ve gelişmekte olan ülkeler açısından demokratikleşmenin ve kentli nüfusun toplam nüfus içerisindeki payının artmasının vergi gelirleri üzerinde iyileştirici bir etki oluşturduğuna işaret etmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Mali Sosyoloji, Vergilendirme, Demokrasi, Dinamik Panel Veri Analizi, Yükselen ve Gelişmekte Olan Ülkeler

Etik Beyan

Çalışma Etik Kurallar Çerçevesinde Hazırlanmıştır.

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TAX REVENUES AND DEMOCRACY: AN APPLICATION ON EMERGING AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Öz

States collect taxes as one-way revenues based on their sovereign power to provide public goods and services. However, over time, taxes have evolved from being based solely on the pure sovereign power of the states to an authority arising from the power of representation. In this context, the connection between taxation and democracy has become one of the critical discussion topics in the fiscal sociology literature. Since the 13th century, the expeditions guiding economic and political reform movements, coupled with rebellions against non-representative taxation, have played a fundamental role in shaping concepts such as representation and taxation in the evolution of the modern public financial structures. In parallel with the theoretical discussions, a broad empirical literature examining the connection between democracy and taxation has emerged due to attempts to measure the typology of political regimes in a country. Empirical findings indicate a positive relationship between democratization and taxation in advanced economies; however, this connection is ambiguous for emerging and developing countries. This study takes this gap in the literature into account and examines the effects of democratization, urbanization, and institutional quality indicators on tax revenues for 41 emerging and developing countries in the 2000-2018 period with dynamic panel data analysis techniques. Our findings indicate that democratization and the increasing share of urban population in total population have a positive impact on tax revenues in the context of emerging and developing countries.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Fiscal Sociology, Taxation, Democracy, Dynamic Panel Data Analysis, Emerging and Developing Countries

Etik Beyan

The study was prepared within the framework of ethical rules.

Kaynakça

• Acemoglu, D., Naidu, S., Restrepo, P., and Robinson, J. A. (2015). Democracy, redistribution, and inequality. A. B. Atkinson & F. Bourguignon (Eds.), Handbook of income distribution (pp. 1885–1966). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-59429-7.00022-4
• Acemoglu, D., and Robinson, J. A. (2012). Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, And Poverty. Profile Books.
• Acemoglu, D., and Robinson, J. A. (2019). The Narrow Coridor: State, Societie and Fate of Liberty. Penguin.
• Ahn, S. C., and Schmidt, P. (1995). Efficient estimation of models for dynamic panel data. Journal of Econometrics, 68(1), 5–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(94)01641-C
• Akca, H., Yurdadog, V., and Bozatlı, O. (2019). A study about the fiscal democracy approach and the Republic of Turkey. Revista Dilemas Contemporáneos: Educación, Política y Valores, 7(95): 1-23. https://doi.org/10.46377/dilemas.v29i1.1854
• Akgül, A. (2022). İstatistiksel Analiz Teknikleri: SPSS’te İşletme Yönetimi ve İktisat Uygulamaları. Alfa Yayınları.
• Andersson, P. F. (2018). Democracy, urbanization, and tax revenue. Studies in Comparative International Development, 53(1), 111–150. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12116-017-9235-0
• Arellano, M., and Bond, S. (1991). Some tests of specification for panel data: Monte Carlo evidence and an application to employment equations. The Review of Economic Studies, 58(2), 277–297. https://doi.org/10.2307/2297968
• Arellano, M., and Bover, O. (1995). Another look at the instrumental variable estimation of error-components models. Journal of Econometrics, 68(1), 29–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(94)01642-D
• Ashraf, M., and Sarwar, S. (2016). Institutional Determinants of tax buoyancy ın developing nations. Journal of Emerging Economies & Islamic Research, 4(1), 1–12.
• Balamatsias, P. (2018). Democracy and taxation. Economics, 12(1), 1–28. https://doi.org/10.5018/economics-ejournal.ja.2018-27
• Baltagi, B. H. (2021). Econometric Analysis of panel data (6th ed.). Springer.
• Bartlett, M. S. (1950). Tests of significance in factor analysis. British Journal of Psychology, 3, 77–85.
• Baskaran, T. (2014). Taxation and democratization. World Development, 56, 287–301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.11.011
• Baskaran, T., and Bigsten, A. (2013). Fiscal capacity and the quality of government in Sub-saharan Africa. World Development, 45, 92–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.09.018
• Blundell, R., and Bond, S. (1998). Initial conditions and moment restrictions in dynamic panel data models. Journal of Econometrics, 87(1), 115–143. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4076(98)00009-8
• Boix, C. (2003). Democracy and redistribution. Cambridge University Press.
• Cevik, S. (2018). The composition of government revenue and democracy: A cross-country examination. M. M. Erdoğdu, M. S. Zouboulakis, S. M. Akar, and B. T. İçke (Eds.), Public Sector Economics & Development (pp. 15–32). Ijopec Publication.
• Cheibub, J. A. (1998). Political regimes and the extractive capacity of governments: taxation in democracies and dictatorships. World Politics, 50(3), 349–376. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887100012843 Ehrhart, H. (2012). Assessing the relationship between democracy and domestic taxes in developing countries. Economics Bulletin, 32(1), 551–556.
• Fauvelle-Aymar, C. (1999). The political and tax capacity of government in developing countries. Kyklos, 52(3), 391–413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6435.1999.tb00224.x
• Garcia, M. M., and von Haldenwang, C. (2016). Do democracies tax more? Political regime type and taxation. Journal of International Development, 28(4), 485–506. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3078
• Gujarati, D. N., and Porter, D. (2018). Temel Ekonometri (5th ed.). Literatür Yayıncılık. Hansen, L. P., and Singleton, K. J. (1982). Generalized instrumental variables estimation of nonlinear rational expectations models. Econometrica, 50(5), 1269–1286. https://doi.org/10.2307/1911873
• IMF. (2024). World Economic Outlook.https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/April/groups-and-aggregates
• Jin Yi, D. (2012). No taxation, no democracy? Taxation, income inequality, and democracy. Journal of Economic Policy Reform, 15(2), 71–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/17487870.2012.672252
• Kaiser, H. F. (1974). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02291575
• Kaplan, E. A., and Dayıoğlu Erul, R. (2023). Türk dünyasında vergi-demokrasi ilişkisi: Montesquieu paradoksu çıkmazı. Fiscaoeconomia, 7(1), 301-326. https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1116832
• Kato, J., and Tanaka, S. (2019). Does taxation lose its role in contemporary democratisation? State revenue production revisited in the third wave of democratisation. European Journal of Political Research, 58(1), 184–208. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12276
• Kaufmann, D., and Kraay, A. (2024). Worldwide Governance Indicators, 2023 Update (Version 2023). www.govindicators.org
• Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A., and Mastruzzi, M. (2010). Response to ‘what do the worldwide governance ındicators measure?’ The European Journal of Development Research, 22(1), 55–58. https://doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2009.49
• Kenny, L. W., and Winer, S. L. (2006). Tax systems in the world: an empirical ınvestigation into the ımportance of tax bases, administration costs, scale and political regime. International Tax and Public Finance, 13(2), 181–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10797-006-3564-7
• Mahdavi, S. (2008). The level and composition of tax revenue in developing countries: Evidence from unbalanced panel data. International Review of Economics & Finance, 17(4), 607–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iref.2008.01.001
• Meltzer, A. H., and Richard, S. F. (1983). Tests of a rational theory of the size of government. Public Choice, 41(3), 403–418. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00141072
• Mulligan, C. B., Gil, R., and Sala-i-Martin, X. (2004). Do democracies have different public policies than nondemocracies? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 18(1), 51–74. https://doi.org/10.1257/089533004773563430
• Mutascu, M. (2011). Taxation and democracy. Journal of Economic Policy Reform, 14(4), 343–348. https://doi.org/10.1080/17487870.2011.635037
• Nickell, S. (1981). Biases in dynamic models with fixed effects. Econometrica, 49(6), 1417–1426. https://doi.org/10.2307/1911408
• Özhan, M., and Keyifli, N. (2020). Vergi gelirleri, kentleşme ve demokrasi: G20 ülkeleri üzerine ekonometrik bir çalışma. EKEV Akademi Dergisi, 84, 391-408.
• Persson, T., and Tabellini, G. (2009). Democratic capital: the nexus of political and economic change. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics, 1(2), 88–126. https://doi.org/10.1257/mac.1.2.88
• Prichard, W., Salardi, P., and Segal, P. (2018). Taxation, non-tax revenue and democracy: New evidence using new cross-country data. World Development, 109, 295–312. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.05.014
• Profeta, P., Puglisi, R., and Scabrosetti, S. (2013). Does democracy affect taxation and government spending? Evidence from developing countries. Journal of Comparative Economics, 41(3), 684–718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jce.2012.10.004
• Rashid, H., Warsame, H., and Khan, S. (2021). The differential ımpact of democracy on tax revenues in developing and developed countries. International Journal of Public Administration, 44(8), 623–635. https://doi.org/10.1080/01900692.2020.1741616
• Roodman, D. (2009). How to do Xtabond2: An introduction to difference and system GMM in stata. The Stata Journal, 9(1), 86–136. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X0900900106
• Rosen, H. S., and Gayer, T. (2010). Public Finance(9 th. Ed.). McGraw Hill Higher Education.
• Ross, M. L. (2004). Does taxation lead to representation? British Journal of Political Science, 34(2), 229–249. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123404000031
• Sargan, J. D. (1958). The estimation of economic relationships using ınstrumental variables. Econometrica, 26(4 393–415. https://doi.org/10.2307/1907619
• Timmons, J. F. (2010). Taxation and representation in recent history. The Journal of Politics, 72(1), 191–208. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609990569
• WDI Prosperity data360. (2024). Polity database: revised combined polity score (PV). https://prosperitydata360.worldbank.org/en/indicator/POLITY5+PRC+polity2
• Windmeijer, F. (2005). A finite sample correction for the variance of linear efficient two-step GMM estimators. Journal of Econometrics, 126(1), 25–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2004.02.005
• World Bank Open Data. (2024). Total tax revenue % of GDP. World Bank Open Data. https://data.worldbank.org Worldwide Governance Indicators. (2024). Worldwide Governance Indicators. https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/worldwide-governance-indicators
• Yerdelen Tatoğlu, F. (2020). İleri panel veri analizi: Stata uygulamalı. Beta Basım Yayım.
• Yurdadoǧ, V., Karadaǧ, N. C., Albayrak, M., and Bozatlı, O. (2022). Analysis of non-tax revenue: evidence from European Union. Amfiteatru Economic, 24(60), 485-506. https://doi.org/10.24818/EA/2022/60/485
• Zarra-Nezhad, M., Ansari, M. S., and Moradi, M. (2016). Determinants of tax revenue: does liberalization boost or decline it?. Journal of Economic Cooperation & Development, 37(2), 103–126.