Araştırma Makalesi
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Yeni “Öteki”: Amerikan Politik Söyleminde İslamofobiyi Onaylama

Yıl 2022, , 423 - 446, 15.12.2022
https://doi.org/10.15745/da.1170036

Öz

Bu makale, İslamofobik söylemin Amerikan siyasetinin ayrılmaz bir parçası haline nasıl geldiğini, İslam ve Müslümanlar hakkındaki Amerikan siyasi söyleminin, özellikle 11 Eylül terör saldırılarından sonra İslamofobinin artışını nasıl etkilediğini ve İslamofobinin Amerikalıların desteğini toplamak ve Amerikan askeri işgalleri de dahil olmak üzere Amerikan emperyal emellerini meşrulaştırmak için siyasi bir araç olarak nasıl kullanıldığı incelemektedir. “Batılı” kimliğinin öteki algısındaki İslam karşıtlığı, 11 Eylül olayları ile birlikte yeni bir ivme kazanırken, Amerikan politik söylemi de -parallel bir şekilde- İslamafobi üzerinden doğu batı ayrımını keskinleştirmeye çalışmıştır. 11 Eylül’den sonra Amerikan siyasi söylemi sadece İslamofobiyi bir politika olarak benimsemekle kalmadı, aynı zamanda başkanlar tarafından imzalanan düzenlemeler ve yasalarla Müslamanlar üzerindeki baskının artmasına sebep oldu. Bu Müslamanları hedef alan bu politik düşünce, temel tezlerini Edward Said’in eleştirdiği Şarkiyatçılıktan (Oryantalizm) almaktaydı. Başka bir deyişle, Edward Said’in Oryantalizm teorisinin ana ilkeleri, 11 Eylül’den sonra ortaya çıkan İslamofobik siyasi söylemle paralellik göstermektedir. Bu açıdan makale, 11 Eylül sonrası Müslümanlar ve İslam hakkındaki Amerikan siyasi söyleminin (güç-bilgi-hakimiyet) ve Amerikalılar arasında artan İslamofobinin nasıl birbirine bağlı ve içiçe olduğunu göstermek için Edward Said’in Oryantalizm teorisini kullanmaktadır. Ayrıca, Amerikan politik söyleminin Müslümanları ötekileştirmek için kullandığı anlatım ve kavramların (“terörist”, “aşırılıkçı” ve “düşman” gibi) orientalist ve sömürücü Batı geleneğinin devamı olduğunu göstermek için söylem analizinden bir yöntem olarak yararlanmaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Abbas, Tahir. “After 9/11: British South Asian Muslims, Islamophobia, Multiculturalism, and the State”. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 23/3 (Summer 2004), 26-38.
  • Abbas, Tahir. “Islamophobia in the United Kingdom: Historical and Contemporary Political and Media Discourses in the Framing of a 21st-Centruy Anti-Islam Racism”. The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, ed. John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 63-76. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  • Allen, Christopher. “Justifying Islamophobia: A Post-9/11 Consideration of the European Union and British Contexts”. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21/3 (Summer 2004), 1-25.
  • Cesari, Jocelyne. “Islamophobia in the West: A Comparison between Europe and the United States” The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, edit by John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 21-46. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  • Cole, Juan. “Islamophobia and American Foreign Policy Rhetoric: The Bush Years and After ” The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, ed. John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 127-142. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  • Gottschalk, Peter and Gabriel Greenberg. “From Muhammed to Obama : Caricatures, Cartoons, and Stereotypes of Muslims” The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, ed. John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 191-210. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  • Hall, Stuart. “The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power.” Modernity: An Introduction to Modern Societies, ed. Stuart Hall, David Held, Don Hubert, and Kenneth Thompson, 184-227. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.
  • Kalin, Ibrahim. “Islamophobia and the Limits of Multiculturalism,” in The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, Edit by John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 3-20. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  • Maria, Sunaina. “Islamohobia and the War on Terror: Youth, Citizenship, and Dissent,” The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, ed. John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin,109-126. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2011).
  • Said, Edward, Orientalism, New York: Vintage Books Edition, 1979.
  • Zaal, Mayida. “Islamophobia in Classrooms, Media, and Politics”. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 55/6 (2012), 555-558.
  • Online References/İnternet Kaynakları
  • Aljazeera. “US Muslims experience rise in Islamophobia”. Access July 20, 2022. http://america. aljazeera.com/articles/2015/12/9/us-muslims-experience-surge-in-islamophobicattacks. html
  • BBC. "What Trump team has said about Islam". Access March 20, 2022. https://www.bbc. com/news/world-us-canada-38886496
  • BBC. “Pope Benedict XVI in his own words”. Access March 5, 2022. https://www.bbc.com/ news/world-europe-21417767
  • CAIR California. "U.S. Muslim Leaders Announce Campaigns to Enhance National Security, Address Rising Islamophobia". Access July 20, 2022. https://ca.cair.com/losangeles/updates/u-s-muslim-leaders-announce-campaigns-to-enhance-national-securityaddress-rising-islamophobia/
  • CNN. "Muslim Americans: Current political climate worse than after 9/11". Access March 23, 2022. https://www.cnn.com/2015/11/20/politics/paris-attacks-trump-carson-bushmuslims- refugees-mosques/
  • CNN. “Poll: Many Americans uncomfortable with Muslims”. Access January 28, 2022. https://religion.blogs.cnn.com/2011/09/06/poll-many-americans-uncomfortable-withmuslims/
  • Huffpost. "Muslim Americans Widely Seen As Victims Of Discrimination". Access February 22, 2022. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/muslim-americans-discrimination_n_6738642
  • Indystar. “IU student arrested in attack on Muslim woman”. Access March 17, 2022. https:// www.indystar.com/story/news/fox59/2015/10/19/iu-student-arrested-attack-muslimwoman/74205220/
  • International Business Times. “Americans' Fear Of Terrorism At Its Peak Since 9/11, New Poll Says”. Access March 21, 2022. https://www.ibtimes.com/americans-fear-terrorism-itspeak- 911-new-poll-says-2221155
  • NBCnews. "ISIS Threat: Fear of Terror Attack Soars to 9/11 High, NBC News/WSJ Poll Finds". Access March 21, 2022. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/first-read/isis-threat-fearterror- attack-soars-9-11-high-nbc-n199496
  • NPR. “Study Shows Islamophobia Is Growing In The U.S. Some Say It's Rising In Chicago, Too”. Access January 28, 22. https://www.npr.org/local/309/2019/05/03/720057760/study-shows-islamophobia-is-growing-in-the-u-s-some-say-it-s-rising-in-chicago-too
  • Othering and Belonging Institute. "Hatem Bazian: The Historical Genesis of Islamophobiain the US and Islamophobia". Access July 20, 2022. https://belonging.berkeley.edu/islamophobia/qa-hatem-bazian
  • Pew Research Center. "Muslims are a growing presence in U.S., but still face negative views from the public". Access January 28, 2022. https://www.pewresearch.org/facttank/2021/09/01/muslims-are-a-growing-presence-in-u-s-but-still-face-negativeviews- from-the-public/
  • Rasmussen Reports. “Voters Like Trump’s Proposed Muslim Ban”. Access July 13, 2022. https://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/current_events/immigration/december_2015/voters_like_trump_s_proposed_muslim_ban
  • Runnymede Trust. “Islamophobia: A Challenge For Us All”. Access July 3, 2022. https://www.runnymedetrust.org/publications/islamophobia-a-challenge-for-us-all
  • SSRN. "'Muslims Bans' and the (Re)Making of Political Islamophobia". Access March 20, 2022. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2742857
  • The Guardian. “Islamophobia worse in America now than after 9/11, survey finds”. Access June 7, 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/mar/10/usa.religion
  • The Guardian. “It’s not just Trump – the US is gripped by anti-Muslim hysteria”. Access July 20, 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/dec/14/anti-islamhysteria-united-states-donald-trump-obama
  • The New York Times. “Hate Crimes Against American Muslims Most Since Post-9/11 Era”. Access January 28, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/18/us/politics/hatecrimes-american-muslims-rise.html
  • The New York Times. “In Chapel Hill Shooting of 3 Muslims, a Question of Motive”. Access March 7, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/12/us/muslim-student-shootingsnorth-carolina.html
  • The Newyorker. "Trump’s Muslim Database Game". Access March 23, 2022. https://www. newyorker.com/news/amy-davidson/trumps-muslim-database-game
  • The Washington Post, "Indiana University student shouted ‘white power,’ attacked woman, police say". Access March 17, 2022. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/gradepoint/wp/2015/10/19/indiana-university-student-shouted-white-power-attackedwoman-police-say/

The New “Other” the Endorsement of Islamophobia in American Political Discourse

Yıl 2022, , 423 - 446, 15.12.2022
https://doi.org/10.15745/da.1170036

Öz

This paper analyses the complexity of problems American Muslims face with Islamophobia by examining (i) how Islamophobic discourse has become an integral part of the American politics; (ii) how the American political discourse on Islam and Muslims has affected the increase of Islamophobia, especially after the 9/11 terrorist attacks; and (iii) how Islamophobia is wielded as a political tool to garner the support of Americans and justify American imperial ambitions including the U.S. invasions and military occupations. Although the 9/11 gave a fresh impetus to Islamophobia, and since then, it has been on the rise, its history is as old as the history of Orientalism in America. Thus, the paper investigates the continuities between received Orientalism and American political rhetoric on Muslims and Islam. After the 9/11, not only did American political discourse manifest Islamophobia but also regulations and laws signed by the presidents targeted Muslims; both are indications of the continuity of accepted Orientalism. Remarkably, the major tenets of Edward Said’s theory of Orientalism parallel the Islamophobic political discourse that emerged after the 9/11. Thus, The paper, thereby draws on Said's discourse analysis of Orientalism to indicate how the rise of Islamophobia among Americans and American political discourse (power) about Muslims and Islam post 9/11 are interconnected and inextricably linked. More specifically, political discourse, while reframing the discourse as “us” versus “them,” hasmoreover, have been categorized on the one hand as “good” Muslims (the exceptions that prove the rule) who serve American interests and imperial policies and “bad” Muslims who are reluctant to serve imperial interests. As this study analytically explains the relationship between Orientalism, an essential tool of the Western colonial mentality, and the American political discourse, which became harsher with anti-Islamic expressions after the 9/11, it shows how American political discourse of Muslims promotes Islamophobia.

Kaynakça

  • Abbas, Tahir. “After 9/11: British South Asian Muslims, Islamophobia, Multiculturalism, and the State”. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 23/3 (Summer 2004), 26-38.
  • Abbas, Tahir. “Islamophobia in the United Kingdom: Historical and Contemporary Political and Media Discourses in the Framing of a 21st-Centruy Anti-Islam Racism”. The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, ed. John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 63-76. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  • Allen, Christopher. “Justifying Islamophobia: A Post-9/11 Consideration of the European Union and British Contexts”. American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 21/3 (Summer 2004), 1-25.
  • Cesari, Jocelyne. “Islamophobia in the West: A Comparison between Europe and the United States” The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, edit by John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 21-46. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  • Cole, Juan. “Islamophobia and American Foreign Policy Rhetoric: The Bush Years and After ” The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, ed. John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 127-142. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  • Gottschalk, Peter and Gabriel Greenberg. “From Muhammed to Obama : Caricatures, Cartoons, and Stereotypes of Muslims” The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, ed. John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 191-210. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  • Hall, Stuart. “The West and the Rest: Discourse and Power.” Modernity: An Introduction to Modern Societies, ed. Stuart Hall, David Held, Don Hubert, and Kenneth Thompson, 184-227. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1996.
  • Kalin, Ibrahim. “Islamophobia and the Limits of Multiculturalism,” in The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, Edit by John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin, 3-20. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011.
  • Maria, Sunaina. “Islamohobia and the War on Terror: Youth, Citizenship, and Dissent,” The Challenge of Pluralism in 21st Century: Islamophobia, ed. John L. Esposito and Ibrahim Kalin,109-126. New York City: Oxford University Press, 2011).
  • Said, Edward, Orientalism, New York: Vintage Books Edition, 1979.
  • Zaal, Mayida. “Islamophobia in Classrooms, Media, and Politics”. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy 55/6 (2012), 555-558.
  • Online References/İnternet Kaynakları
  • Aljazeera. “US Muslims experience rise in Islamophobia”. Access July 20, 2022. http://america. aljazeera.com/articles/2015/12/9/us-muslims-experience-surge-in-islamophobicattacks. html
  • BBC. "What Trump team has said about Islam". Access March 20, 2022. https://www.bbc. com/news/world-us-canada-38886496
  • BBC. “Pope Benedict XVI in his own words”. Access March 5, 2022. https://www.bbc.com/ news/world-europe-21417767
  • CAIR California. "U.S. Muslim Leaders Announce Campaigns to Enhance National Security, Address Rising Islamophobia". Access July 20, 2022. https://ca.cair.com/losangeles/updates/u-s-muslim-leaders-announce-campaigns-to-enhance-national-securityaddress-rising-islamophobia/
  • CNN. "Muslim Americans: Current political climate worse than after 9/11". Access March 23, 2022. https://www.cnn.com/2015/11/20/politics/paris-attacks-trump-carson-bushmuslims- refugees-mosques/
  • CNN. “Poll: Many Americans uncomfortable with Muslims”. Access January 28, 2022. https://religion.blogs.cnn.com/2011/09/06/poll-many-americans-uncomfortable-withmuslims/
  • Huffpost. "Muslim Americans Widely Seen As Victims Of Discrimination". Access February 22, 2022. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/muslim-americans-discrimination_n_6738642
  • Indystar. “IU student arrested in attack on Muslim woman”. Access March 17, 2022. https:// www.indystar.com/story/news/fox59/2015/10/19/iu-student-arrested-attack-muslimwoman/74205220/
  • International Business Times. “Americans' Fear Of Terrorism At Its Peak Since 9/11, New Poll Says”. Access March 21, 2022. https://www.ibtimes.com/americans-fear-terrorism-itspeak- 911-new-poll-says-2221155
  • NBCnews. "ISIS Threat: Fear of Terror Attack Soars to 9/11 High, NBC News/WSJ Poll Finds". Access March 21, 2022. https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/first-read/isis-threat-fearterror- attack-soars-9-11-high-nbc-n199496
  • NPR. “Study Shows Islamophobia Is Growing In The U.S. Some Say It's Rising In Chicago, Too”. Access January 28, 22. https://www.npr.org/local/309/2019/05/03/720057760/study-shows-islamophobia-is-growing-in-the-u-s-some-say-it-s-rising-in-chicago-too
  • Othering and Belonging Institute. "Hatem Bazian: The Historical Genesis of Islamophobiain the US and Islamophobia". Access July 20, 2022. https://belonging.berkeley.edu/islamophobia/qa-hatem-bazian
  • Pew Research Center. "Muslims are a growing presence in U.S., but still face negative views from the public". Access January 28, 2022. https://www.pewresearch.org/facttank/2021/09/01/muslims-are-a-growing-presence-in-u-s-but-still-face-negativeviews- from-the-public/
  • Rasmussen Reports. “Voters Like Trump’s Proposed Muslim Ban”. Access July 13, 2022. https://www.rasmussenreports.com/public_content/politics/current_events/immigration/december_2015/voters_like_trump_s_proposed_muslim_ban
  • Runnymede Trust. “Islamophobia: A Challenge For Us All”. Access July 3, 2022. https://www.runnymedetrust.org/publications/islamophobia-a-challenge-for-us-all
  • SSRN. "'Muslims Bans' and the (Re)Making of Political Islamophobia". Access March 20, 2022. https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2742857
  • The Guardian. “Islamophobia worse in America now than after 9/11, survey finds”. Access June 7, 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/mar/10/usa.religion
  • The Guardian. “It’s not just Trump – the US is gripped by anti-Muslim hysteria”. Access July 20, 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2015/dec/14/anti-islamhysteria-united-states-donald-trump-obama
  • The New York Times. “Hate Crimes Against American Muslims Most Since Post-9/11 Era”. Access January 28, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/18/us/politics/hatecrimes-american-muslims-rise.html
  • The New York Times. “In Chapel Hill Shooting of 3 Muslims, a Question of Motive”. Access March 7, 2022. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/02/12/us/muslim-student-shootingsnorth-carolina.html
  • The Newyorker. "Trump’s Muslim Database Game". Access March 23, 2022. https://www. newyorker.com/news/amy-davidson/trumps-muslim-database-game
  • The Washington Post, "Indiana University student shouted ‘white power,’ attacked woman, police say". Access March 17, 2022. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/gradepoint/wp/2015/10/19/indiana-university-student-shouted-white-power-attackedwoman-police-say/
Toplam 34 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Hatice Altundal Erkmen 0000-0002-0470-4465

Yayımlanma Tarihi 15 Aralık 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2022

Kaynak Göster

ISNAD Altundal Erkmen, Hatice. “The New ‘Other’ the Endorsement of Islamophobia in American Political Discourse”. Dini Araştırmalar 25/63 (Aralık 2022), 423-446. https://doi.org/10.15745/da.1170036.