RETHINKING AND RECONCEPTUALIZING ENERGY SECURITY: THE CASE OF CHINA

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 24 Sayı: 2 , 855 - 889 , 30.06.2022

Özgenur Aktan

https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.1027806

https://izlik.org/JA73EE67ND

Öz

This study examines the concept of energy security and proposes an alternative paradigm in the context of the climate crisis. In this context, the presuppositions of mainstream and contemporary approaches towards energy security in International Relations discipline will be examined and formulated in four sorts of approaches as realist, liberal, environmental and human security. These approaches will be classified as traditional and contemporary energy security paradigms. This study contends that the connection to realist and liberal approaches is the predominant strategy in the field of energy security and for this reason, the relationship between energy and security needs to be reconceptualized. Although environmental and human security approaches have been effective in deepening the boundaries of energy security, a critical perspective is necessary for both mainstream and contemporary energy security paradigms. In this regard, the focus will be directed to the energy security policies of China to accentuate problematic aspects of the contemporary energy security paradigm. Then, the concept of planetary security as normative and interdisciplinary framework for the energy security policies, which have been in search of a paradigm, will be proposed.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Energy , Realist and Liberal Theories , Parameters of Energy Security , China , Planet Politics

ENERJİ GÜVENLİĞİ ÜZERİNE YENİDEN DÜŞÜNMEK VE KAVRAMSALLAŞTIRMAK: ÇİN ÖRNEĞİ

https://izlik.org/JA73EE67ND

Öz

Bu çalışma, enerji güvenliği kavramını incelemekte ve iklim krizi bağlamında alternatif bir paradigma önermektedir. Bu bağlamda enerji güvenliğine yönelik Uluslararası İlişkiler disiplinindeki ana akım ve çağdaş yaklaşımların ön kabulleri incelenecek ve realist, liberal, çevresel ve insan güvenliği olmak üzere dört çeşit yaklaşımda formüle edilecektir. Bu yaklaşımlar, geleneksel ve çağdaş enerji güvenliği paradigmaları olarak sınıflandırılacaktır. Bu çalışma, realist ve liberal yaklaşımlarla bağlantının enerji güvenliği alanındaki hâkim strateji olduğunu ve bu nedenle, enerji ve güvenlik arasındaki ilişkinin yeniden kavramsallaştırılması gerektiğini ileri sürmektedir. Çevresel ve insan güvenliği yaklaşımları, enerji güvenliğinin sınırlarını derinleştirmede etkili olmuş olsa bile hem ana akım hem de çağdaş enerji güvenliği paradigmaları için eleştirel bir yaklaşım gereklidir. Bu bağlamda çağdaş enerji güvenliği paradigmasının sorunlu yönlerini vurgulamak için Çin'in enerji güvenliği politikalarına odaklanılacaktır. Akabinde, iklim krizi bağlamında bir paradigma arayışı içerisindeki enerji güvenliği politikaları için normatif ve disiplinlerarası bir çerçeve olarak gezegensel güvenlik kavramı önerilecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Enerji , Realist ve Liberal Teoriler , Enerji Güvenliğinin Parametreleri , Çin , Gezegensel Siyaset

Kaynakça

• Aktan, Ö. (2020). Understanding Planetary Security: A Post-humanist Paradigm in Approaching Energy Security and Climate Crisis (Master’s Thesis). Istanbul Technical University, Graduate School of Arts and Social Sciences. Available from YÖK National Thesis Center Database. Thesis No. 629559.
• APEC (2007). “A Quest for Energy Security in the 21st Century: Resources and Constraints”. Asia Pacific Energy Research Centre (APERC), Institute of Energy Economics, Japan.
• Aristotle, & Reeve, C.D.C. (2016). Metaphysics. (Trans. with Introduction and Notes by C. D. C. Reeve). Indianapolis, Cambridge: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.
• Ascensão, F., Fahrig, L., Clevenger, A. P., Corlett, R. T., Jaeger, J.A.G., Laurance, W. F., & Pereira, H. M. (2018). “Environmental challenges for the Belt and Road Initiative”. Nature Sustainability, 1(5), 206-209.
• Belt and Road Portal (n.d.). “Profiles”. In International Cooperation. https://eng.yidaiyilu.gov.cn/info/iList.jsp?cat_id=10076 (10.05.2021).
• Burke, A., Fishel, S., Mitchell, A., Dalby, S., & Levine, D. J. (2016). “Planet Politics: A Manifesto from the End of IR”. Millennium: Journal of International Studies. 44(3), 499-523.
• Buzan, B., Wæver, O., & de Wilde, J. (1998). Security: A New Framework for Analysis. Boulder, London, Lynne Rienner Publishers.
• Cambridge Dictionary (n.d.). “Energy”. In Cambridge Dictionary. https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english-turkish/energy (10.01.2021).
• Chandler, D., Cudworth, E., & Hobden, S. (2018). “Anthropocene, Capitalocene and Liberal Cosmopolitan IR: A Response to Burke et al.’s ‘Planet Politics’”. Millennium, 46(2), 190-208.
• Chellaney, B. (2017). “China’s debt-trap diplomacy”. The Strategist, Australian Strategic Policy Institute. https://www.aspistrategist.org.au/chinas-debt-trap-diplomacy/ (10.05.2021).
• Ciută, F. (2010). “Conceptual Notes on Energy Security: Total or Banal Security?”. Security Dialogue, 41(2), 123-144.
• Constantin, C. (2005). “China’s Conception of Energy Security: Sources and International Impacts”. University of British Columbia School of Public Policy and Global Affairs. Working Paper, No. 43. https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/46540/WP43.pdf (10.01.2021).
• CREA (2020). “China’s air pollution overshoots pre-crisis levels for the first time”. Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air (CREA). https://energyandcleanair.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/China-air-pollution-rebound-final.pdf (10.06.2021).
• Dannreuther, R. (2003). “Asian Security and China’s Energy Needs”. International Relations of the Asia-Pacific, 3(2), 197-219.
• Dannreuther, R. (2015). “Energy Security and Shifting Modes of Governance”. International Politics, 52(4), 466-483.
• Deese, D. A. (1979-1980). “Energy: Economics, Politics, and Security”. International Security, 4(3), 140-153.
• Du, K., & Lin, B. (2015). “Understanding the rapid growth of China’s energy consumption: A comprehensive decomposition framework”. Energy, Vol. 90, Part 1, 570–577.
• EIA (n.d.). “What is the volume of world natural gas reserves?”. In Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ), U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). https://www.eia.gov/international/data/world/natural-gas/dry-natural-gas-reserves?pd=3002&p=000000000000000000004&u=0&f=A&v=mapbubble&a=-&i=none&vo=value&t=C&g=00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000001&l=249-ruvvvvvfvtvnvv1vrvvvvfvvvvvvfvvvou20evvvvvvvvvvvvvvs&s=315532800000&e=1609459200000&vb=102&ev=false (17.05.2021).
• EIA (2018). “China surpassed the United States as the world’s largest crude oil importer in 2017”. IEA. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=37821
• EIA (2022a). “What countries are the top producers and consumers of oil?”. In Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ), EIA. https://www.eia.gov/tools/faqs/faq.php?id=709&t=6 (10.05.2022).
• EIA (2022b). “As of 2021, China imports more liquefied natural gas than any other country”. EIA. https://www.eia.gov/todayinenergy/detail.php?id=52258 (12.04.2022).
• European Commission (2016). “Towards Energy Union: The Commission presents sustainable energy security package”. European Commission. Press Release. https://ec.europa.eu/commission/presscorner/detail/en/IP_16_307 (08.02.2021).
• Fishel, S., Burke, A., Mitchell, A., Dalby, S., & Levine, D. (2018). “Defending Planet Politics”. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 46(2), 209-219.
• Goldthau, A. (2010). “Energy Diplomacy in Trade and Investment of Oil and Gas”. In A. Goldthau, and J. M. Witte (Eds.), Global Energy Governance: The New Rules of the Game (pp. 25-48). Brookings Institution Press, Global Public Policy Institute.
• Goldthau, A., & Witte, J. M. (2009). “Back to the Future or Forward to the Past? Strengthening Markets and Rules for Effective Global Energy Governance”. International Affairs, 85(2), 373–390.
• Gong, X. (2022). “Energy security through a financial lens: Rethinking geopolitics, strategic investment, and governance in China’s global energy expansion”. Energy Research & Social Science, Vol. 83, 102341, 1-14.
• Herberg, M. E. (2016). “The Role of Energy in Disputes over the South China Sea”. Commentary from the Maritime Awareness Project. The National Bureau of Asian Research. https://www.nbr.org/publication/the-role-of-energy-in-disputes-over-the-south-china-sea/ (18.05.2021).
• Howell, S. (2009). “Jia You! (Add Oil!): Chinese Energy Security Strategy”. In G. Luft and A. Korin (Eds.), Energy Security Challenges for the 21st Century: A Reference Handbook (pp. 191-218). Praeger Security International. An Imprint of ABC-CLIO LLC.
• IEA (n.d.-a). “Net Energy Imports”. IEA Data Services. https://www.iea.org/countries/china (18.04.2022).
• IEA (n.d.-b). “Total energy supply (TES) by source, People's Republic of China 1990-2019”. https://www.iea.org/countries/china (18.04.2022).
• IEA (n.d.-c). “Total final consumption (TFC) by source, People's Republic of China 1990-2019”. https://www.iea.org/countries/china (18.04.2022).
• IEA (n.d.-d). “Electricity generation by source, People's Republic of China 1990-2019”. In the Energy Topic of Electricity and Heat, Indicator of Electricity Generation by Source. IEA. https://www.iea.org/countries/china (18.05.2021).
• IEA (n.d.-e). https://www.iea.org/countries/china (18.05.2021).
• IEA (2020a). “Coal 2020: Analysis and forecast to 2025”. International Energy Agency (IEA). https://www.iea.org/reports/coal-2020 (18.05.2021).
• IEA (2020b). World Energy Outlook 2020. International Energy Agency (IEA).
• IEA (2021). “An Energy Sector Roadmap to Carbon Neutrality in China”. International Energy Agency (IEA). https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/9448bd6e-670e-4cfd-953c-32e822a80f77/AnenergysectorroadmaptocarbonneutralityinChina.pdf
• Keohane, R. O. (1984). After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World Political Economy. Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton University Press.
• Kuteleva, A. (2021). China’s Energy Security and Relations with Petrostates: Oil as an Idea. London and New York: Routledge.
• Langlois-Bertrand, S. (2010). “The Contemporary Concept of Energy Security”. Defence R&D Canada: Centre for Operational Research and Analysis (CORA), Report Number: DRDC CORA CR 2010-148.
• Lehrman, R. L. (1973). “Energy is Not the Ability to do Work”. The Physics Teacher, 11(1), 15-18.
• Lindsay, R. B. (1971). “The Concept of Energy and its Early Historical Development”. Foundations of Physics, 1(4), 383-393.
• Luft, G., & Korin, A. (2009a). “Energy Security: In the Eyes of the Beholder”. In G. Luft and A. Korin (Eds.), Energy Security Challenges for the 21st Century: A Reference Handbook (pp. 1-17). Praeger Security International. An Imprint of ABC-CLIO LLC.
• Luft, G., & Korin, A. (2009b). “Realism and Idealism in the Energy Security Debate”. In G. Luft and A. Korin (Eds.), Energy Security Challenges for the 21st Century: A Reference Handbook (pp. 335-349). Praeger Security International. An Imprint of ABC-CLIO LLC.
• Miller, T. (2019). China’s Asian Dream: Empire Building along the New Silk Road. Zed Books.
• Morgenthau, H. J. (1948). Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. New York, Alfred A. Knopf.
• National Development and Reform Commission (2004). “China Medium and Long Term Energy Conservation Plan”. Retrieved from the Asian and Pacific Energy Forum. https://policy.asiapacificenergy.org/node/3010 (04.06.2021).
• National Development and Reform Commission (2015). “Vision and Actions on Jointly Building Silk Road Economic Belt and 21st-Century Maritime Silk Road”. Issued by the National Development and Reform Commission, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, and Ministry of Commerce of the People’s Republic of China, with State Council Authorization. https://en.ndrc.gov.cn/newsrelease_8232/201503/t20150330_1193900.html (04.06.2021).
• NATO (2016). “Warsaw Summit Communiqué”. Issued by the Heads of State and Government participating in the meeting of the North Atlantic Council in Warsaw 8-9 July 2016. In Official Texts (Chronological), e-Library, NATO. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/official_texts_133169.htm (14.06.2021).
• Phillips, A. (2013). “A Dangerous Synergy: Energy Securitization, Great Power Rivalry and Strategic Stability in the Asian Century”. The Pacific Review, 26:1, 17-38.
• Proedrou, F. (2015). “Rethinking Energy Security: An Inter-paradigmatic Debate”. Hellenic Foundation for European & Foreign Policy (ELIAMEP). No. 24, 1-19.
• Raphael, S., and Stokes, D. (2016). “Energy Security”. In A. Collins (Ed.), Contemporary Security Studies (Fourth Edition, pp. 343-355). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin, F. S., Lambin, E. F., … Foley, J. A. (2009). “A safe operating space for humanity”. Nature, 461(7263), 472-475.
• Rojey, A. (2009). Energy and Climate: How to Achieve a Successful Energy Transition (First Edition). London, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication.
• Sexl, R. U. (1981). “Some Observations Concerning the Teaching of the Energy Concept”. European Journal of Science Education, 3(3), 285-289.
• Sovacool, B. K., & Brown, M. A. (2010). “Competing Dimensions of Energy Security: An International Perspective”. Annual Review of Environment and Resources. Vol. 35, 77-108.
• Sovacool, B. K., & Mukherjee, I. (2011). “Conceptualizing and measuring energy security: A synthesized approach”. Energy, 36(8), 5343–5355.
• Sovacool, B. K., Sidortsov, R. V., & Jones, B. R. (2014). Energy Security, Equality and Justice. London and New York: Routledge.
• Spiegel, J. E. (2020). “The potential climate consequences of China’s Belt and Roads Initiative”. Yale Climate Connections. https://yaleclimateconnections.org/2020/02/the-potential-climate-consequences-of-chinas-belt-and-roads-initiative/ (20.07.2021).
• Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockstrom, J., Cornell, S. E., Fetzer, I., Bennett, E. M., … Sorlin, S. (2015).“Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet“. Science, 347(6223), 1259855-1259855.
• Stiegler, B. (2016). Automatic Society: The Future of Work. (Trans. by Daniel Ross). Volume 1, Cambridge, Polity Press.
• The Jimmy Carter Presidential Library & Museum (n.d.). Jimmy Carter, State of the Union Address 1980, January 23, 1980. In Selected Speeches of Jimmy Carter. The Jimmy Carter Presidential Library. https://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/assets/documents/speeches/su80jec.phtml (12.04.2021).
• The National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China (2005). “Renewable Energy Law of the People's Republic of China”. http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Law/2007-12/13/content_1384096.htm (12.04.2022).
• The National People’s Congress of the People’s Republic of China (2007). “Law of the People’s Republic of China on Energy Conservation”. http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Law/2009-02/20/content_1471608.htm (12.05.2021).
• The State Council of the People’s Republic of China (2011). “China’s Foreign Trade”. White Paper. http://english.www.gov.cn/archive/white_paper/2014/08/23/content_281474983043184.htm (17.03.2021).
• The State Council of the People’s Republic of China (2022). “Xi Jinping attends deliberation of Inner Mongolia delegation at Fifth Session of 13th National People's Congress”. https://english.www.gov.cn/news/topnews/202203/06/content_WS62240d00c6d09c94e48a61b1.html (18.04.2022).
• The World Commission on Environment and Development (1987). Our Common Future. United Nations General Assembly, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (n.d.). “Data Query, Total Population by sex (thousands)”. Population Dynamics. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs https://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/ (12.03.2021).
• UNDP (2020). “Session Notes, Human Development in the Anthropocene: Transformations to Expand Human Freedoms in Balance with the Planet”. Virtual Regional Consultation for Europe and CIS on the 2020 Human Development Report. UNDP. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/notes_2020_regional_consultation_for_europe_and_cis.pdf (17.01.2021).
• UNDP (n.d.). “The SDGS in Action: What are the Sustainable Development Goals?”. UNDP. https://www.undp.org/sustainable-development-goals (17.01.2021).
• UNDP, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs and World Energy Council (2000). World Energy Assessment: Energy and the Challenge of Sustainability. UNDP, New York, USA. https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2423World_Energy_Assessment_2000.pdf (12.03.2021).
• von Hippel, D., Suzuki, T., Williams, J. H., Savage, T., & Hayes, P. (2011). “Energy Security and Sustainability in Northeast Asia”. Energy Policy, 39(11), 6719–6730.
• Waltz, K. (1979). Theory of International Politics. California, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company.
• Warren, J. W. (1982). “The Nature of Energy”. European Journal of Science Education, 4(3), 295-297.
• WWF (2017). “The Belt and Road Initiative: WWF Recommendations and Spatial Analysis”. Briefing Paper. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). http://awsassets.panda.org/downloads/the_belt_and_road_initiative___wwf_recommendations_and_spatial_analysis___may_2017.pdf (17.07.2021).
• Xin, Z. (2022). “Nation more energy self-sufficient”. China Daily. https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202202/15/WS620b00e3a310cdd39bc86a11.html (13.04.2022).
• Xu, S. (2020). “The paradox of the energy revolution in China: A socio-technical transition perspective”. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 137, 110469, 1-9.
• Yergin, D. (2006). “Ensuring Energy Security”. Foreign Affairs. 85(2), 69-82.
• Yergin, D., Eklof, D., & Edwards, J. (1998). “Fueling Asia’s Recovery”. Foreign Affairs. 77(2), 34-50.
• Yiwei, W. (2019). “America’s Belt and Road Syndrome”. China-US Focus. https://www.chinausfocus.com/finance-economy/americas-belt-and-road-syndrome (09.07.2021).
• Youatt, R. (2014). “Interspecies Relations, International Relations: Rethinking Anthropocentric Politics”. Millennium: Journal of International Studies, 43(1), 207-223.
• Zhou, L., Gilbert, S., Wang, Y., Cabre, M. M, & Gallagher, K. P. (2018). “Moving the Green Belt and Road Initiative: From Words to Actions”. Working Paper. World Resources Institute & Global Development Policy Center.https://files.wri.org/d8/s3fs-public/moving-green-belt-and-road-initiative-from-words-to-actions.pdf (09.07.2021).