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THE PROBLEM OF ORGANIZATIONS’ MANAGEMENT LEVELS ACROSS THE WORLD IN THE 21st CENTURY: GENDER DISCRIMINATION

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 25 Sayı: 2, 877 - 901, 15.06.2023
https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.1244555

Öz

The main purpose of this study is to examine the gender discrimination problems faced by women at management levels in the US, Europe, Asia and Turkey in the 21st century. In the first part, the literature findings on the current situation of gender discrimination in countries were summarized. In the second part, data related to the problems faced by women managers in the public administration and private sector in Turkey and relevant solution suggestions were given.
Although most of the gender discrimination studies focus on a single aspect of gender discrimination, various fundamental issues such as mobbing, physical harassment, career development constraints and wage differences in different countries were mentioned in the study. The topic has been discussed in terms of both female employees and managers. On the other hand, answers were sought to the questions of how gender discrimination is viewed in different countries in 21st century, what the findings of the studies related to these might be, and why it is important to consider these issues in a universal integrity. Because in different countries and cultures, the fact that the problems faced by women employees and managers are similar and what their solution-oriented counterparts are in the societies were also among the topics of analysis.

Kaynakça

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  • Alon, T., Doepke, M., Olmstead-Rumsey, J. & Tertilt, M. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on gender equality (No. 26947). National Bureau of Economic Research.
  • Alparslan, A.M., Bozkurt, Ö.Ç. & Özgöz, A. (2015). İşletmelerde cinsiyet ayrımcılığı ve kadın çalışanların sorunları. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2 (1), 66-81.
  • Atay, Ö. (2017). Gendered success and strategies for change in a Turkish university. In Gendered Success in Higher Education içinde (pp. 215-232). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Aydın, A. & Kahraman, Ö. F. (2015). Türkiye’de kadın temsili sorunsalına kadın bakanlar bağlamında bir bakış. Yasama Dergisi, 31, 46-64.
  • Baumle, A.K. & Fossett, M. (2005). Statistical discrimination in employment. American Behavioral Scientist, 48 (9), 1250-1274.
  • Beken, N. (2020). Covid-19 pandemi sürecinde kadın istihdamı: Türkiye örneği. Iğdır Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (Ek Sayı), 47-74.
  • Bélanger, D. & Tran-Giang, L. (2013). Precarity, gender and work: Vietnamese migrant workers in Asia. Diversities, 15 (1), 5-20.
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  • Böök, B., Burri, S., Senden L. & Timmer, A. (2021). A comparative analysis of gender equality law in Europe 2020: The 27 EU Member States, Albania, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Serbia, Turkey and the United Kingdom compared. Brussels: European Commission.
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  • Courmadias, N., Fujimoto, Y. & Härtel, C.E.J. (2010). Japanese Equal Employment Opportunity Law: implications for diversity management in Japan. In M.F. Özbilgin & J. Syed (Eds.), Managing Gender Diversity in Asia (pp. 104-118). UK and USA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
  • Craig, L. & Churchill, B. (2021). Dual-earner parent couples’ work and care during COVID-19’. Gender, Work & Organization, 28, 66-79.
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  • Di Stasio, V. & Larsen, E. N. (2020). The racialized and gendered workplace: applying an intersectional lens to a field experiment on hiring discrimination in five European labor markets. Social Psychology Quarterly, 83 (3), 229-250.
  • Eroğlu, F. & İrdem, Ş. (2016). Toplumsal cinsiyet ayrımcılığı ve yönetim kademelerindeki yansımaları. Pamukkale İşletme ve Bilişim Yönetimi Dergisi, 3 (2), 11-35.
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21. YÜZYILDA DÜNYADA KURUMLARIN YÖNETİM KADEMELERİNDEKİ SORUNSAL: CİNSİYET AYRIMCILIĞI

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 25 Sayı: 2, 877 - 901, 15.06.2023
https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.1244555

Öz

Yapılan bu çalışmada, temel olarak 21. yüzyılda ABD, Avrupa, Asya ülkeleri ile Türkiye’de yönetim kademelerinde yer alan kadınların karşılaştıkları cinsiyet ayrımcılığı sorunlarının incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Birinci kısımda, cinsiyet ayrımcılığının ülkelerdeki mevcut durumuna yönelik literatür bulguları özetlenmiştir. İkinci kısımda, Türkiye’de kamu yönetimi ve özel sektörde kadın yöneticilerin karşılaştıkları sorunlar ve çözüm önerilerine yönelik bilgiler verilmiştir.
Cinsiyet ayrımcılığı araştırmalarının çoğu, cinsiyet ayrımcılığının tek yönüne odaklanmasına rağmen çalışmada değişik ülkelere ait mobbing, fiziksel taciz, kariyer gelişimi olumsuzlukları ve ücret farklılıkları gibi çeşitli temel konulara değinilmiştir. Konu, hem kadın çalışanlar hem de kadın yöneticiler açısından ele alınmıştır. Diğer yandan farklı ülkelerde, içinde bulunduğumuz yüzyılda cinsiyet ayrımcılığına nasıl bakıldığı, bunlara ait çalışmaların bulgularının neler olabileceği, konunun evrensel bir bütünlük içinde dikkate alınmasının neden önemli olduğu sorularına da cevap aranmıştır. Çünkü farklı ülkeler ve kültürlerde çalışan ve yöneticilik yapan kadınların sorunlarının aynı olduğuna yönelik tespitler ve bunların toplumlarda çözüme yönelik karşılığının neler olduğu da inceleme konuları arasındadır.

Kaynakça

  • Akçabay, F.C. (2022). İstanbul Sözleşmesi’nin ardından: kadına yönelik şiddetle mücadelede IV. Ulusal Eylem Planı’na dair bir inceleme. Kültür ve Siyasette Feminist Yaklaşımlar, 43, 161-174.
  • Alon, T., Doepke, M., Olmstead-Rumsey, J. & Tertilt, M. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 on gender equality (No. 26947). National Bureau of Economic Research.
  • Alparslan, A.M., Bozkurt, Ö.Ç. & Özgöz, A. (2015). İşletmelerde cinsiyet ayrımcılığı ve kadın çalışanların sorunları. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 2 (1), 66-81.
  • Atay, Ö. (2017). Gendered success and strategies for change in a Turkish university. In Gendered Success in Higher Education içinde (pp. 215-232). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Aydın, A. & Kahraman, Ö. F. (2015). Türkiye’de kadın temsili sorunsalına kadın bakanlar bağlamında bir bakış. Yasama Dergisi, 31, 46-64.
  • Baumle, A.K. & Fossett, M. (2005). Statistical discrimination in employment. American Behavioral Scientist, 48 (9), 1250-1274.
  • Beken, N. (2020). Covid-19 pandemi sürecinde kadın istihdamı: Türkiye örneği. Iğdır Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (Ek Sayı), 47-74.
  • Bélanger, D. & Tran-Giang, L. (2013). Precarity, gender and work: Vietnamese migrant workers in Asia. Diversities, 15 (1), 5-20.
  • Berik, G. (2022). Towards improved measures of gender inequality: An evaluation of the UNDP gender inequality index and a proposal. UNWOMEN.
  • Bingöl, D., Aydoğan, E., Şenel, G. & Erden, P. (2011). Cam tavan sendromu ve kadınların hiyerarşik yükselmelerindeki engeller: TC. Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı Ankara Merkez Teşkilatı örneği. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi İşletme Fakültesi Dergisi, 12 (1), 115-132.
  • Böök, B., Burri, S., Senden L. & Timmer, A. (2021). A comparative analysis of gender equality law in Europe 2020: The 27 EU Member States, Albania, Iceland, Liechtenstein, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Norway, Serbia, Turkey and the United Kingdom compared. Brussels: European Commission.
  • Brynin, M. & Güveli, A. (2012). Understanding the ethnic pay gap in Britain. Work, Employment and Society, 26 (4), 574-587.
  • Byron, R. (2008). Stereotypes and the bottom line: Learning lessons from gender based firing discrimination cases.
  • Carlson, D. L., Petts, R. & Pepin, J. (2020). US’ couples divisions of housework and childcare during COVID-19 pandemic, SocArXiv.doi:10.31235/osf.io/jy8fn
  • Casey, L. S., Reisner, S. L., Findling, M. G., Blendon, R. J., Benson, J. M., Sayde, J. M. & Miller, C. (2019). Discrimination in the United States: Experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer Americans. Health Services Research, 54, 1454-1466.
  • Chou, R. J. A. & Choi, N. G. (2011). Prevalence and correlates of perceived workplace discrimination among older workers in the United States of America. Ageing & Society, 31 (6), 1051-1070.
  • Cichowski, R.A. (2004). Women’s rights, the European court, and supranational constitutionalism. Law Society Review, 38 (3), 489-512.
  • Clark, A. E., D’ambrosio, C. & Zhu, R. (2021). Job quality and workplace gender diversity in Europe. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 183, 420-432.
  • Courmadias, N., Fujimoto, Y. & Härtel, C.E.J. (2010). Japanese Equal Employment Opportunity Law: implications for diversity management in Japan. In M.F. Özbilgin & J. Syed (Eds.), Managing Gender Diversity in Asia (pp. 104-118). UK and USA: Edward Elgar Publishing.
  • Craig, L. & Churchill, B. (2021). Dual-earner parent couples’ work and care during COVID-19’. Gender, Work & Organization, 28, 66-79.
  • Czymara, C. S., Langenkamp, A. & Cano, T. (2021). Cause for concerns: gender inequality in experiencing the COVID-19 lockdown in Germany. European Societies, 23 (1), 568-581.
  • Çobanoğlu, F. (2018). Gender equality in Turkish higher education. International Journal of Higher Education, 7 (5), 97-113.
  • Çokoğullar, E. (2022), “Marjinallik” ve “maruziyet” arasında Türkiye’de kadınlık. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 4 (1), 139-164.
  • Dalkıranoğlu, T. & Çetinel, F.G. (2008). Konaklama işletmelerinde kadın ve erkek yöneticilerin cinsiyet ayrımcılığına karşı tutumlarının karşılaştırılması. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 20, 277-298.
  • Di Stasio, V. & Larsen, E. N. (2020). The racialized and gendered workplace: applying an intersectional lens to a field experiment on hiring discrimination in five European labor markets. Social Psychology Quarterly, 83 (3), 229-250.
  • Eroğlu, F. & İrdem, Ş. (2016). Toplumsal cinsiyet ayrımcılığı ve yönetim kademelerindeki yansımaları. Pamukkale İşletme ve Bilişim Yönetimi Dergisi, 3 (2), 11-35.
  • Estévez-Abe, M. (2013). An international comparison of gender equality: Why is the Japanese gender gap so persistent. Japan Labor Review, 10 (2), 82-100.
  • Farré, L., Fawaz, Y., González, L. & Graves, J. (2020). How the COVID-19 lockdown affected gender inequality in paid and unpaid work in Spain. Economic Working Paper, No. 1728.
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  • Healy, G., Özbilgin, M. & Aliefendioğlu, H. (2005). Academic employment and gender: A Turkish challenge to vertical sex segregation. European Journal of Industrial Relations, 11 (2), 247-264.
  • Hofäcker, D. & Radl, J. (2016). Retirement transitions in times of institutional change. D. Hofäcker, M. Hess ve S. König (Ed.), Delaying retirement: progress and challenges of active ageing in Europe, the United States and Japan içinde (ss. 1-21). London: Palgrave Macmillan.
  • Johnson, Z. & Mathur-Helm, B. (2011). Experiences with queen bees: A South African study exploring the reluctance of women executives to promote other women in the workplace. South African Journal of Business Management, 42 (4), 47-56.
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  • Kim, J. H., Oh, S. S., Bae, S. W., Park, E. C. & Jang, S. I. (2019). Gender discrimination in the workplace: effects on pregnancy planning and childbirth among South Korean women. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16 (15), 2672.
  • Kurtulus, F.A. & Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (2012). Do female top managers help women to advance? A panel study using EEO-1 records. The Annals of the American Academy, 639, 173-197.
  • Leppel, K., Brucker, E. & Cochran, J. (2012). The importance of job training to job satisfaction of older workers. Journal of Aging and Social Policy, 24, 62-76.
  • Lössbroek, J. & Radl, J. (2019). Teaching older workers new tricks: workplace practices and gender training differences in nine European countries. Ageing & Society, 39 (10), 2170-2193.
  • Machado-Taylor, M. & Özkanlı, Ö. (2013). Gender and academic careers in Portuguese and Turkish higher education ınstitutions. Education in Science, 38 (169), 346-356.
  • Malisch, J. L., Harris, B. N., Sherrer, S. M., Lewis, K. A., Shepherd, S. L., McCarthy, P. C. & Deitloff, J. (2020). In the wake of COVID-19, academia needs new solutions to ensure gender equity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 117 (27), 15378-15381.
  • Matsuda, S. (2013). Declining birthrate. Tokyo: Keiso Shobo.
  • Medyascope. (2020). “2020 Yönetim Kurulunda Kadın Türkiye Raporuna göre, kadın direktör sayısı bir yılda yüzde 5 arttı”, https://medyascope.tv/2020/11/20/2020-yonetim-kurulunda-kadin-turkiye-raporuna-gore-kadin-direktor-sayisi-bir-yilda-yuzde-5-artti/ (Erişim Tarihi: 3.1.2023)
  • Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674-697.
  • Monroe, K., Ozyurt, S., Wrigley, T. & Alexander, A. (2008). Gender equality in academia: Bad news from the trenches, and some possible solutions. Perspectives on Politics, 6, 215-233.
  • Mucci, N., Traversini, V., Giorgi, G., Tommasi, E., De Sio, S. & Arcangeli, G. (2019). Migrant workers and psychological health: A systematic review. Sustainability, 12 (1), 120.
  • Neale, J. & Özkanlı, Ö. (2010). Organisational barriers for women in senior management: A comparison of Turkish and New Zealand universities. Gender and Education, 22 (5), 547-563.
  • Negiz, N. & Yemen, A. (2011). Kamu örgütlerinde kadın yöneticiler: yönetici ve çalışan açısından yönetimde kadın sorunsalı. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 24, 195-214.
  • Nishimura, J. (2016). Motherhood and work in contemporary Japan. London: Routledge.
  • O’Connell, P.J. & Byrne, D. (2012). The determinants and effects of training at work: bringing the workplace back in. European Sociological Review, 28, 283-300.
  • OECD [Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]. (2012). Closing the gender gap. Paris: OECD.
  • Okin, S. M. (2015). Justice, gender, and the family. Justice, Politics, and the Family içinde (ss. 63-87). Routledge.
  • Ong, M., Wright, C., Espinosa, L. & Orfield, G. (2011). Inside the double bind: A synthesis of empirical research on undergraduate and graduate women of color in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. Harvard Educational Review, 81 (2), 172-209.
  • Özbilgin, M. & Healy, G. (2004). The gendered nature of career development of university professors: The case of Turkey. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 64 (2), 358-371.
  • Parker, K. & Funk, C. (2017). Gender discrimination comes in many forms for today’s working women. Pew Research Center.
  • Patterson, L. & Walcutt, B. (2013). Korean workplace gender discrimination research analysis: A review of the literature from 1990 to 2010. Asia Pacific Business Review, 19 (1), 85-101.
  • Picchio M. & Van Ours, J.C. (2013). Retaining through training even for older workers. Economics of Education Review, 32, 29-48.
  • Prado, K.Y., Rivera-Heredi, M.E., Martínez-Servín, L.G., Guzmán-Carillo, K-Y. & McCurdy, S.A. (2021). “It’s wrong because it could be my sister, wife, or mother”: Workplace sexual harassment among men and women farmworkers in USA and Mexico. Journal of Agromedicine, 26 (2), 220-230.
  • Rafferty, A. (2020). Skill underutilization and under-skilling in Europe: The role of workplace discrimination. Work, Employment and Society, 34 (2), 317-335.
  • Roos, P. A. & Gatta, M. L. (2009). Gender (in)equity in the academy: Subtle mechanisms and the production of inequality. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 27 (3), 177-200.
  • Rubery, J., Grimshaw, D. & Figueiredo, H. (2005). How to close the gender pay gap in Europe: towards the gender mainstreaming of pay policy. Industrial Relations Journal, 36 (3), 184-213.
  • Sağlamer, G., Tan, M. G., Çebi, P. D., Çağlayan, H., Gümüşoğlu, N. K., Poyraz, B. & Kahraman, S. Ö. (2018). Gendered patterns of higher education in Turkey: Advances and challenges. Women’s Studies International Forum, 66 (2018), 33-47.
  • Seguino, S. (2000). Accounting for gender in Asian economic growth. Feminist Economics, 6 (3), 27-58.
  • Shafer, K., Milkie, M. & Scheibling, C. (2020). The division of labour before & during the COVID-19 pandemic in Canada. SocArXiv. doi:10.31235/osf.io/24j87.
  • Shaffer, M. A., Joplin, J. R., Bell, M. P., Lau, T. & Oguz, C. (2000). Gender discrimination and job-related outcomes: A cross-cultural comparison of working women in the United States and China. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57 (3), 395-427.
  • Smith, A. E. & Dengiz, B. (2010). Women in engineering in Turkey – a large scale quantitative and qualitative examination. European Journal of Engineering Education, 35 (1), 45-57.
  • Steelfisher, G. K., Findling, M. G., Bleich, S. N., Casey, L. S., Blendon, R. J., Benson, J. M., Sayde, J.M. & Miller, C. (2019). Gender discrimination in the United States: Experiences of women. Health Services Research, 54, 1442-1453.
  • Suresh-Kumar, M. & Rao, C. (2021). Comparitive analysis of gender equality in India with selected countries and study of legal protection of women against gender discrimination. Turkish Journal of Physiotherapy and Rehabilitation, 32 (2), 3934-3946.
  • Suzuki, K. & Naka, S. (2022). Being doubly disadvantaged or escaping gender discrimination?: female self-employment in Japan and their responses to the COVID-19 crisis. Asia Pacific Journal of Social Work and Development, 32 (4), 244-261.
  • Tahtalıoğlu, H. (2016). Türkiye’de yükseköğretim kurumlarında cam tavan sendromunun kadınlar üzerindeki etkileri. Niğde Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 9 (2), 89-105.
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  • Taşar, H. H. (2022). Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı Merkez Teşkilatı üst yönetiminde kadın temsili. Mülkiye Dergisi, 46 (3), 794-815.
  • Toksöz, G., Şener, Ü., Demircan, S., Karababa, R., Memiş, E., Arslan, H., Kaptanoğlu, İ.Y., Kabadayı, A., Akyıldırım, O. & İnanç, B. (2022). Türkiye’de toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğini izleme raporu 2021-2022. CEİD Yayınları.
  • Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (1993). Gender and racial inequality at work. Ithaca: Industrial Labor Relations Press.
  • Tomaskovic-Devey, D., & Skaggs, S. (1999). An establishment-level test of the statistical discrimination hypothesis. Work and Occupations, 26 (4), 422-445.
  • UNDP. Gender inequality index (GII), https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/thematic-composite-indices/gender-inequality-index#/indicies/GII, (Erişim: 25.12.2022)
  • Ustun, S. & Gümüşeli A. I. (2017). Many lives of women rectors at Turkish universities. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 5 (8), 123-131.
  • Yalçın, Ç. (2015). Türkiye’de ev hizmetlerinde çalışan göçmen kadınlar ve ekonomik şiddet. Feminist Eleştiri Dergisi, 7 (1), 50-60.
  • Zengin-Arslan, B. (2002). Women in engineering education in Turkey: Understanding the gendered distribution. International Journal of Engineering Education, 18 (4), 400-408.
  • Zhou, M., Hertog, E., Kolpashnikova, K. & Kan, M. Y. (2020). Gender inequalities: Changes in income, time use and well-being before and during the UK COVID-19 lockdown. SocArXiv. doi:10.31235/osf.io/u8ytc.10.31235/osf.io/u8ytc.
Toplam 85 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Rabia Üste 0000-0002-2525-0968

Sırrı Cem 0000-0003-3751-4841

Yayımlanma Tarihi 15 Haziran 2023
Gönderilme Tarihi 30 Ocak 2023
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023 Cilt: 25 Sayı: 2

Kaynak Göster

APA Üste, R., & Cem, S. (2023). 21. YÜZYILDA DÜNYADA KURUMLARIN YÖNETİM KADEMELERİNDEKİ SORUNSAL: CİNSİYET AYRIMCILIĞI. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 25(2), 877-901. https://doi.org/10.16953/deusosbil.1244555