Uzak Doğu'dan Yansımalar: Çin'deki Katolik ve Nesturî Varlığının Karşılaştırılması

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 5 Sayı: 1, 158 - 180, 30.06.2022

Thomas Ertl Çevirmen: Celal Öney

https://doi.org/10.47145/dinbil.1060083

Öz

Orta çağda Batı Avrupa'dan Fransisken rahipler ve Suriye'den Nesturî rahipler, kendi Hıristiyan mezheplerini ve doktrinini yaymak ve bölgede kiliselerini kurmak için Uzak Doğu'ya gittiler. Benzer hedefleri paylaşsalar da, Fransiskenler ve Nesturîler farklı ikna yöntemleri kullandılar, bu nedenle misyonerlik çalışmalarının sonuçları ve mirası, önemli ölçüde birbirlerinden farklıydı. Moğol bozkırlarındaki mezar taşlarının da kanıtladığı gibi, Nesturîler Uzak Doğu'da dikkate değer ölçüde başarılıydılar; ancak kendi ülkelerinde (Mezopotamya), ironi bir şekilde, giderek marjinalleştirildiler. Buna karşılık, Katolik Fransiskenler ve Uzak Doğu'ya giden diğer Avrupalı seyyahlar, benzer misyonerlik başarısı elde edemediler ve 14. yüzyılın ortalarından sonra bölgede neredeyse hiç izleri kalmadı. Bununla birlikte, kendi ülkelerindeki okuyucuları için yazdıkları seyahatnameler ve mektuplar, hem Orta Çağ'ın sonlarında Avrupa’yı dışa açma hırsları üzerinde hem de on yedinci yüzyıl Çin'indeki Katolik misyonunun dönüşü üzerinde büyük bir etkiye sahipti. Özetle, Nesturîlerin mirası Orta Asya’daki taş anıtlardı ve Fransiskenler ise Batı'da ilham verici metinler bıraktılar. Uzak Doğu'daki Hıristiyan misyonerlik faaliyetinin ilgili uygulamalarının karşılaştırılması, ortaçağ kültürler arası seyahatin hem menşe bölgelerini hem de varış bölgelerini çeşitli şekillerde nasıl etkilediğini daha iyi tanıtabilir. Bu nedenle, Orta Çağ'ın sonlarında Uzak Doğu'daki Hıristiyan varlığı ortadan kalksa da bu misyonerlerin geldiği toplumlar için kalıcı sonuçlar doğurmuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Orta Çağ, Misyonerlik Tarihi, Kültürel Değişim, Nesturiler

Repercussions from the Far East: A Comparison of the Catholic and Nestorian Presence in China

Öz

In the middle ages, Franciscan monks from Western Europe and Nestorian monks from Syria traveled to the Far East to spread the gospel and to establish their churches in the region. Although they shared similar goals, Franciscans and Nestorians employed different methods of persuasion, so the results and legacy of their missionary work differed considerably. The Nestorians were remarkably successful in the Far East, as proven by the gravestones in the Mongolian steppes; in their home countries, ironically, they were increasingly marginalized. In contrast, the Franciscans and other European travelers to the Far East did not achieve similar missionary success and scarcely left a mark on the region after the mid-fourteenth century. The travelogues and letters they composed for their audiences at home, however, had a great impact, both on late-medieval European ambitions to open up the world and on the return of the Catholic mission in seventeenth-century China. In summary, the Nestorians’ legacy was stone monuments in the East and the Franciscans left inspiring texts in the West. A comparison of the respective practices of Christian missionary activity in the Far East may further recognition of how medieval cross-cultural travel affected both the regions of origin and the regions of destination in various ways. Therefore, even though the Christian presence in the Far East vanished in the late middle ages, it had lasting consequences for the societies from whence the missionaries came. It not only broadened the West’s knowledge of the Far East but also influenced the renewal of Christian missions in the region from the seventeenth century onwards.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Medieval, Missionary History, Cultural Exchange, Nestorian

Kaynakça

• Alexander Toepel, “Traces of Nestorianism in Manchuria and Korea,” Oriens Christianus 89 (2005): 77–85.
• Anastasius van Wyngaert, ed., “Wilhelmus Rubruquensis, Itinerarium ad partes orientales,” in Itinera et relationes Fratrum Minorum saeculi XIII et XIV (Quaracchi-Firenze: Collegium S. Bonaventurae, 1929), 29.
• Angelo Cattaneo, “Fra Mauro’s Cosmographus incomparabilis and his Mappamundi: Documents, Sources, and Protocols for Mapping,” in La Cartografia europea tra primo Rinascimento e fine dell’Illuminismo, ed. Diogo Ramado Curto (Florence: Olschki, 2003), 19–48.
• Arnold Lauren, Princely Gifts and Papal Treasures: The Franciscan Mission to China and its Influence on the Art of the West, 1250–1350 (San Francisco: Desiderata Press, 1999).
• Arthur C. Moule, “The Use of the Cross among the Nestorians in China,” T’oung Pao 28 (1931).
• Arthur C. Moule, Christians in China Before the Year 1550 (London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1930).
• Barbara Wehr, “A propos de la génèse du ‘Devisament dou monde’ de Marco Polo,” in Le passage de l’écrit des langues romanes, ed. Maria Selig, Barbara Fank, and Jörg Hartmann (Tübingen: Gunter Narr, 1993), 299–326.
• Bayard H. Jones, “The History of Nestorian Liturgies,” Anglican Theological Review 46 (1964).
• Bizhen Xie, “The History of Quanzhou Nestorianism,” in Malek and Hofrichter, Jingjiao, 257–277.
• C. Y. Hsü, “Nestorianism and the Nestorian Monument in China,” Asian Culture Quarterly 14, no. 1 (1986): 46.
• Charles H. Parker, “Converting Souls across Cultural Borders: Dutch Calvinism and Early Modern Missionary Enterprises,” Journal of Global History, 8, 1, 2013.
• Christine Mollier, Buddhism and Taoism Face to Face: Scripture, Ritual, and Iconographic Exchange in Medieval China (Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 2008).
• Christopher A. Atwood, “Validation by Holiness or Sovereignty: Religious Toleration as Political Theology in the Mongol World Empire of the Thirteenth Century,” International History Review 26, no. 2 (2004).
• David E. Mungello, Curious Land: Jesuit Accommodation and the Origins of Sinology (Stuttgart: Steiner, 1985), 164–172.
• Dietmar W. Winkler, Ostsyrisches Christentum: Untersuchungen zu Christologie, Ekklesiologie und zu den ökumenischen Beziehungen der Assyrischen Kirche des Ostens (Münster: Lit, 2003).
• dward L. Farmer, Zhu Yuanzhang and Early Ming Legislation: The Reordering of Chinese Society Following the Era of Mongol Rule (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 105–113.
• Erica C. D. Hunter, “The Church of the East in Central Asia,” Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 78, no. 3 (1996).
• Erica C. D. Hunter, “The Conversion of the Kerait to Christianity in AD 1007,” Zentralasiatische Studien 22 (1989/90): 140–163.
• Erik Hildinger, trans. and ed., The Story of the Mongols whom We Call the Tartars. Friar Giovanni di Plano Carpini’s Account of his Embassy to the Court of the Mongol Khan (Boston: Branden, 1996).
• Fan Ke, (2001), “Maritime Muslims and Hui Identity: A South Fujian Case,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 21, 2.
• Folker Reichert, “Chinas Beitrag zum Weltbild der Europäer: Zur Rezeption der Fernostkenntnisse im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert,” in Das geographische Weltbild um 1300: Politik im Spannungsfeld von Wissen, Mythos und Fiktion, ed. Peter Moraw (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1989), 33–57.
• Folker Reichert, “Columbus und Marco Polo—Asien in Amerika: Zur Literaturgeschichte der Entdeckungen,” Zeitschrift für historische Forschung 15 (1988): 1–61.
• Francis A. Rouleau, “The Yangchow Latin Tombstone as a Landmark of Medieval Christianity in China,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 17, no. 3–4 (1954): 348–351.
• Franz Xaver Peintinger, “In Nomine Domini: Ein christlicher Grabstein in Yangzhou (1344),” in The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ, ed. Roman Malek (Nettetal: Steyler, 2002), 1:285–289.
• Frédéric Luisetto, Arménians et autres chrétiens d’Orient sous la domination mongole (Paris: Geuthner, 2007).
• Gerhard Rosenkranz, Die älteste Christenheit in China in den Quellenschriften der Nestorianer-Texte der Tang-Dynastie (Berlin: Ostasien-Mission, 1939).
• Gerrit J. Reinink, “Tradition and the Formation of the Nestorian Identity in Sixth- to Seventh-Century Iraq,” Church History and Religious Culture 89, no. 1–3 (2009).
• Hajji Yusuf Chang, “Chinese Muslim Mobility in Sung-Liao-Chin Period,” in Islam in China: Key Papers, ed. Michael Dillon (Folkestone: Global Oriental, 2009), 1:159–160.
• Henry Yule, trans., The Travels of Friar Odoric: Blessed Odoric of Pordenone. Italian Texts and Studies on Religion and Society, (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2002), 1–62 (“Introduction” by Paolo Chiesa).
• Herbert Franke, “Eine qarluq-türkische Familie im Dienste der mongolischen Großkhane,” in Scholia: Beiträge zur Turkologie und Zentralasienkunde. Annemarie von Gabain zum 80. Geburtstag, ed. Klaus Röhrborn and Horst Wilfrid Brands (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1981), 64–79.
• Ian Gillman and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit, Christians in Asia before 1500 (Richmond: Curzon, 1999).
• Igor de Rachewiltz, “The Turks in China under the Mongols: A Preliminary Investigation of Turco-Mongol Relations in the 13th and 14th Century,” in China among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and its Neighbors, 10th–14th centuries, ed. Morris Rossabi (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983).
• Ilaria Luzzana Caraci, “Marco Polo e le grandi scoperte geografiche dei secoli XV e XVI,” in L’impresa di Marco Polo: Cartografia, viaggi, percezione, ed. Cosimo Palagiano (Rome: Tiellemedia, 2007), 21–26.
• James D. Ryan, “Christian Wives of the Mongol Khans: Tartar Queens and Missionary Expectations in Asia,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 8, no. 3 (1998): 411–421.
• James Hamilton and Ru-Ji Niu, “Deux inscriptions funéraires Turques Nestoriennes de la Chine orientale,” Journal Asiatique 282, no. 1 (1994): 147–155.
• Jean Dauvillier, “Les provinces Chaldéennes ‘de l’extérieur’ au moyen age,” in Mélanges offerts au R. P. Ferdinand Cavallera, doyen de la faculté de théologie de Toulouse, à l’occasion de la quarantième année de son professorat à l’Institut Catholique, ed. Jean Dauvillier (Toulouse: Bibliothèque de l’Institut Catholique, 1948).
• Jean Maurice Fiey, Chrétiens syriaques sous le Mongols: Il-Khanat de Perse, XIIIe–XIVe s. Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium (Louvain: Secrétariat du Corpus SCO, 1987).
• Jean Maurice Fiey, Pour un Oriens Christianus Novus: Répertoire des diocèses syriaques orientaux et occidentaux (Stuttgart: Steiner, 1993).
• Jean Richard, “La mission en Europe de Rabban Çauma et l’union des églises,” in Orient et Occident au Moyen Âge, ed. Jean Richard (London: Variorum Reprints, 1976), 162–167.
• Jean Richard, “Zayton, un évêché au bout du monde,” in Chemins d’Outre-Mer: Etudes d’histoire sur la Méditerranée médiévale offertes à Michel Balard, ed. Damien Coulon (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 2004).
• Johannes Fried, “Suche nach der Wirklichkeit: Die Mongolen und die europäische Erfahrungswissenschaft im 13. Jahrhundert,” Historische Zeitschrift 243 (1986): 287–332.
• Johannes Witte, Das Buch des Marco Polo als Quelle für die Religionsgeschichte (Berlin: Hutten-Verlag, 1916).
• Joseph P. Byrne, “Giovanni di Piano Carpini (c. 1180–1252),” in Key Figures in Medieval Europe: An Encyclopedia, ed. Richard C. Emmerson and Sandra Clayton-Emmerson (New York: Routledge, 2006).
• Jussi Hanska and Antti Ruotsala, “Berthold von Regensburg, OFM, and the Mongols: Medieval Sermon as a Historical Source,” Archivum franciscanum historicum 89 (1996): 425–445.
• Ken Parry, “An Unusual Artifact from South China,” Journal of the Asian Arts Society of Australia Review 15, no. 2 (2006): 12–13.
• Ken Parry, “Images of the Church of the East: The Evidence from Central Asia and China,” Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 78, no. 3 (1996): 143–162.
• Klaus Koschorke, „Ob er nun unter den Indern weilt oder unter den Chinesen … Die ostsyrisch-nestorianische Kirche des Ostens als kontinentales Netzwerk im Asien der Vormoderne,” Jahrbuch für Europäische Überseegeschichte 9 (2009): 18–24.
• Leonardi Olschky, “Manichaeism, Buddhism and Christianity in Marco Polo’s China,” Asiatische Studien 5, 1–2 (1951): 1–21.
• Li Tang, A Study on the History of Nestorian Christianity in China and its Literature in Chinese: Together with a New English Translation of the Dunhuang Nestorian Documents (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 2004).
• Liam Brockey, Journey to the East: The Jesuit Mission to China, 1579–1724 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007).
• Louis Ligeti, “Les sept monastaires Nestoriens de Mar Sargis,” Acta Orientalia Hungarica 26, no. 2–3 (1972): 169–178.
• Luke Clossey, “Merchants, Migrants, Missionaries, and Globalization in the Early Modern Pacific,” Journal of Global History 1, no. 1 (2006): 41–58.
• Marco Polo, The Description of the World, trans. and annot. A.C. Moule and Paul Pelliot (London: G. Routledge & Sons, 1938).
• Mathias Mundadan, History of Christianity in India, vol. 1, From the Beginning up to the Middle of the Sixteenth Century (Bangalore: Church History Association of India, 1984).
• Matteo Ricci, Descrizione della Cina (Macerata: Quodlibet, 2011).
• Max Deeg, “Towards a New Translation of the Chinese Nestorian Documents from the Tang Dynasty,” in Malek and Hofrichter, Jingjiao, 115–131.
• Michael Frassetto, ed., Heresy and the Persecuting Society in the Middle Ages: Essays on the Work of R. I. Moore (Leiden: Brill, 2006).
• Michal Biran, The Empire of the Qara Khitai in Eurasian History between China and the Islamic World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
• Morris Rossabi, Voyager from Xanadu: Rabban Sauma and the First Journey from China to the West (Tokyo, New York and London: Kodansha, 1992).
• Nancy Shatzman Steinhardt, (2008), “China’s Earliest Mosques,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 67, no. 3 : 330–361.
• Nathan J. Ristuccia, “Eastern Religions and the West: The Making of an Image,” History of Religions 53, 2 (2013): 170–204.
• Nicolas Standaert, ed., Handbook of Christianity in China, vol. I, 635–1800 (Leiden: Brill, 2001).
• P. Yoshiro Saeki, The Nestorian Documents and Relics in China (Tokyo: Maruzen, 1951).
• Patrick O’Brien, “Historical Foundations for a Global Perspective on the Emergence of a Western European Regime for the Discovery, Development, and Diffusion of Useful and Reliable Knowledge,” Journal of Global History 8, no. 1 (2013): 1–24.
• Paul Carus, The Nestorian Monument: An Ancient Record of Christianity in China (Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Company, 1909).
• Peter Bruns, “Doch wegen der Ehre des Kreuzes standen wir zusammen … Östliches Christentum im Itinerar des Wilhelm von Rubruk (1253–1255),” Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte 113, no. 2 (2002): 145–169.
• Peter Burke, Cultural Hybridity (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2009).
• Peter Jackson, trans. and ed., The Mission of Friar William of Rubruck: His Journey to the Court of the Great Khan Möngke, 1253–1255 (London: Hakluyt Society, 1990), chap. XXVI, 12, 163–164.
• Peter N. Gregory and Patricia Buckley Ebrey, “The Religious and Historical Landscape,” in Religion and Society in T’ang and Sung China, ed. Patricia Buckley Ebrey and Peter N. Gregory (Honululu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1993), 18–35..
• Peter R. D’Agostino, “Orthodoxy or Decorum? Missionary Discourse, Religious Representations, and Historical Knowledge,” Church History 72, no. 4 (2003).
• Pier Borbone, Storia di Mar Yahballaha e di Rabban Sauma: Un orientale in Occidente ai tempi di Marco Polo (Turin: Zamorani, 2000).
• Qin Zhang Yang, “Nestorian Churches and their Followers along the Southern China Coast in the Yuan,” in Andrea da Perugia: Atti del Convegno, Perugia, 19 settembre 1992, ed. Carlo Santini (Rome: Il Calamo, 1994), 105–128.
• Richard M. Price, “Marian Piety and the Nestorian Controversy,” in The Church and Mary, ed. Robert N. Swanson (Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2006).
• Roberto S. Lopez, Su e giu per la storia di Genova (Genoa: Universita di Genova. Istituto di paleografia e storia medievale, 1975).
• Rowan A. Greer, “The Use of Scripture in the Nestorian Controversy,” Scottish Journal of Theology 20, no. 4 (1967).
• Samuel H. Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia, vol. 1, Beginnings to 1500 (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1998).
• Samuel N. C. Lieu, “Medieval Manichaean and Nestorian Remains in the Zayton (Quanzhou) of Marco Polo,” in New Light on Manichaeism: Papers from the Sixth International Congress on Manichaeism Organized by the International Association of Manichaean Studies, ed. Jason D. BeDuhn (Leiden: Brill, 2009).
• Samuel N. C. Lieu, “Nestorian Remains from Zaitun (Quanzhou), South China,” in Malek and Hofrichter, Jingjiao, 277–291.
• Sebastian P. Brock, “The ‘Nestorian’ Church: A Lamentable Misnomer,” Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester 78, no. 3 (1996).
• Shimin Geng, “Reexamination of the Nestorian Inscription from Yangzhou,” in Jingjiao: The Church of the East in China and Central Asia, ed. Roman Malek and Peter Hofrichter (Nettetal: Steyler, 2006).
• Shimin Geng, Hans-Joachim Klimkeit, and Jens Peter Laut, “Eine neue nestorianische Grabinschrift aus China,” Ural-altaische Jahrbücher, N. F. 14 (1996).
• Susan Wessel, Cyril of Alexandria and the Nestorian Controversy: The Making of a Saint and of a Heretic (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004).
• Thomas Ertl, Religion und Disziplin: Selbstdeutung und Weltordnung im frühen deutschen Franziskanertum (Berlin: de Gruyter, 2006), 367–388.
• Thomas Graumann, “The Distribution of Texts and Communication-Networks in the Nestorian Controversy,” in Comunicazione e ricezione del documento cristiano in epoca tardoantica: XXXII Incontro di Studiosi dell’Antichità Cristiana, Roma, 8–10 maggio 2003 (Rome: Institutum Patristicum Augustinianum, 2004).
• Tilmann Lohse, “Pious Men in Foreign Lands: Global-historical Perspectives on the Migrations of Medieval Ascetics, Missionaries, and Pilgrims,” Viator 44 (2013): 123–136.
• Tjallin H. F. Halbertsma, Early Christian Remains of Inner Mongolia (Leiden: Brill, 2008).
• Ulrike Strasser, “A Case of Empire Envy? German Jesuits Meet an Asian Mystic in Spanish America,” Journal of Global History 2, no. 1 (2007).
• Wasilios Klein, “Christliche Reliefgrabsteine des 14. Jahrhunderts von der Seidenstraße: Ergänzungen zu einer alttürkischen und zwei syrischen Inschriften,” in VI Symposium Syriacum, ed. René Lavenant (Rome: Pontificio Istituto Orientale, 1994), 439–442.
• Wilhelm Baum and Dietmar W. Winkler, Die Apostolische Kirche des Ostens: Geschichte der sogenannten Nestorianer (Klagenfurt: Kitab, 2000).
• Wolfgang Hage, “Das Nebeneinander christlicher Konfessionen im mittelalterlichen Zentralasien,” in XVII. Deutscher Orientalistentag, ed. Wolfgang Voigt, (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1969), 2:517–525.
• Wolfgang Hage, “Der Weg nach Asien: Die ostsyrische Missionskirche,” in Kirchengeschichte als Missionsgeschichte, ed. Knut Schäferdiek, vol. 2, bk. 1, Die Kirche des früheren Mittelalters (München: Kaiser, 1978).
• Wolfgang Hage, “Einheimische Volkssprachen und syrische Kirchensprache in der nestorianischen Asienmission,” in Erkenntnisse und Meinungen, vol. 2, ed. Gernot Wießner (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1978), 131–160.
• Xu Longfei, Die nestorianische Stele in Xi’an: Begegnung von Christentum und chinesischer Kultur (Bonn: Borengässer, 2004).
• Yves Raguin, “China’s First Evangelization by the 7th and 8th Century Eastern Syrian Monks,” in Malek, The Chinese Face of Jesus Christ, 1:159–161.