KALIP YARGI TEHDİDİ'NE KABULLENİCİ YANITLAR ÜZERİNE BİR DERLEME: PERFORMANS BEKLENTİLERİ VE KENDİNİ SABOTE ETME STRATEJİLERİ

Yıl 2017, Cilt: 57 Sayı: 2, 1224 - 1249, 01.01.2017

Abdulkadir Kuzlak

Öz

Birçok azınlık grubu üyesine, kendi gruplarının performansıyla ilgili olumsuz kalıp yargılar hatırlatıldığında, performanslarında düşüşler görülmektedir. Bu durum, bireylerin olumsuz kalıp yargıların yanlış olduğunu göstermeye çalışırken verdiği tepkiler neticesinde oluştuğunu varsayan Kalıp Yargı Tehdidi ile açıklanabilir. Ancak, bireylerin bu çabasına rağmen, sonuç, kalıp yargılar doğrultusunda gerçekleşir. Bu makale, hatırlatılan olumsuz kalıp yargıların bireyleri nasıl etkilediğine dair farklı bir açıklama önermektedir. Buna göre, kendilerine kalıp yargılar hatırlatılan bireyler, bu yargılara tepki göstermektense, performans beklentileri ve kendini sabote etme stratejilerinin aracı etkileriyle bu yargıları kabullenmektedirler. Bu amaçla, bu makale, Kalıp Yargı Tehdidi'nin genel bir derlemesini yapacak, kabullenici değişkenlerin varlığını gösterecek ve önerilen açıklamanın sınırlılıklarından bahsedecektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kalıp Yargı Tehdidi, Performans Beklentisi, Kendini Sabote Etme, Aracı Değişkenler, Derleme

A REVIEW OF ACCEPTANT RESPONSES TO STEREOTYPE THREAT: PERFORMANCE EXPECTATIONS AND SELF-HANDICAPPING STRATEGIES

Öz

Many minority group members underperform when negative performance related stereotypes about their group are salient. This provisional predicament can be explained by Stereotype Threat which assumes that performance decrements after negative stereotype prime is sourced from the reactions of individuals not conrming the stereotype. However, the results occur in line with the primed stereotype inspite of the effort of individuals. This paper offers another explanation on how evoked negative performance stereotypes affect individuals. Specically, it is proposed that stereotype evoked individuals might also accept those posed negative stereotypes with the mediating roles of performance expectations and self-handicapping strategies rather than reacting to them. For that purpose, the current paper will put forward a general review of Stereotype Threat, evidence for acceptant variables, and possible limitations of offered explanation.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Stereotype Threat, Performance Expectations, Self-Handicapping, Mediating Variables, Review

Kaynakça

• Abrams, Dominic, Anja Eller, and Jacqueline Bryant. “An Age Apart: The Effects of Intergenerational Contact and Stereotype Threat on Performance and Intergroup Bias.” Psychology and Aging 21.4 (2006): 691–702.
• Appel, Markus, Silvana Weber, and Nicole Kronberger. "The Influence of Stereotype Threat on Immigrants: Review and Meta-Analysis." Frontiers in Psychology 6 (2015): 1-15.
• Arkin, Robert M., and Kathryn C. Oleson. "Self-Handicapping." Attribution and Social Interaction: The Legacy of Edward E. Jones. Eds. John M. Darley and Joel Cooper. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1998. 313-371.
• Beilock, Sian L. et al. "On The Causal Mechanisms of Stereotype Threat: Can Skills That Don't Rely Heavily on Working Memory Still Be Threatened?." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 32.8 (2006): 1059-1071.
• Ben-Zeev, Talia, Steven Fein, and Michael Inzlicht. "Arousal and Stereotype Threat." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 41.2 (2005): 174-181.
• Berglas, Steven, and Edward E. Jones. "Drug Choice as a Self-Handicapping Strategy in Response to Noncontingent Success." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 36.4 (1978): 405-417.
• Bosson, Jennifer K., Ethan L Haymovitz, and Elizabeth C. Pinel. "When Saying and Doing Diverge: The Effects of Stereotype Threat on Self-Reported Versus Non Verbal Anxiety." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 40.2 (2004): 247- 255.
• Brittian, Aerika S. et al. "Do Dimensions of Ethnic Identity Mediate the Association Between Perceived Ethnic Group Discrimination and Depressive Symptoms?." Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 21.1 (2015): 41-53.
• Cadinu, Mara et al. "Stereotype Threat: The Effect of Expectancy on Performance." European Journal of Social Psychology 33.2 (2003): 267-285.
• Calogero, Rachel M., and John T. Jost. "Self-Subjugation among Women: Exposure to Sexist Ideology, Self-Objectification, and the Protective Function of the Need to Avoid Closure.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 100.2 (2011): 211-228.
• Cheryan, Sapna, Andrew N. Meltzoff, and Saenam Kim. "Classrooms Matter: The Design of Virtual Classrooms Influences Gender Disparities in Computer Science Classes." Computers & Education 57.2 (2011): 1825-1835.
• Cheung, I. et al. "Registered Replication Report." Perspectives on Psychological Science 11.5 (2016): 750-764.
• Dardenne, Benoit, Muriel Dumont, and Thierry Bollier. "Insidious Dangers of Benevolent Sexism: Consequences for Women's Performance." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 93.5 (2007): 764-779.
• Elliot, Andrew J., and Marcy A. Church. "A Motivational Analysis of Defensive Pessimism and Self-Handicapping." Journal of Personality 71.3 (2003): 369- 396.
• Ferriman, Kimberley, David Lubinski, and Camilla P. Benbow. "Work Preferences, Life Values, and Personal Views of Top Math/Science Graduate Students and the Profoundly Gifted: Developmental Changes and Gender Differences during Emerging Adulthood and Parenthood." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 97.3 (2009): 517-532.
• Flore, Paulette C., and Jelte M. Wicherts. "Does Stereotype Threat Influence Performance of Girls in Stereotyped Domains? A Meta-Analysis." Journal of School Psychology 53.1 (2015): 25-44.
• Fogliati, Vincent J., and Kay Bussey. "Stereotype Threat Reduces Motivation to Improve." Psychology of Women Quarterly 37.3 (2013): 310-324.
• Folkman, Susan, and Richard S. Lazarus. "If it Changes it must be a Process: Study of Emotion and Coping during Three Stages of a College Examination." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 48.1 (1985): 150-170.
• Ganley, Colleen M. et al. "An Examination of Stereotype Threat Effects on Girls’ Mathematics Performance." Developmental Psychology 49.10 (2013): 1886- 1897.
• Geary, David C. "Sexual Selection and Sex Differences in Spatial Cognition." Learning and Individual Differences 7.4 (1995): 289-301.
• Gibson, Carolyn E., Joy Losee, and Christine Vitiello. "A Replication Attempt of Stereotype Susceptibility (Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady, 1999)." Social Psychology 45.3 (2014): 194-198.
• Good, Catherine, Joshua Aronson, and Michael Inzlicht. "Improving Adolescents' Standardized Test Performance: An Intervention to Reduce the Effects of Stereotype Threat." Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 24.6 (2003): 645-662.
• Hagger, M. S. et al. "A Multilab Preregistered Replication of The Ego-Depletion Effect." Perspectives on Psychological Science 11.4 (2016): 546-573.
• Hamlin, J. Kiley et al. "Not Like Me = Bad: Infants Prefer Those who Harm Dissimilar Others." Psychological Science 24.4 (2013): 589-594.
• Hess, T. M. et al. "The Impact of Stereotype Threat on Age Differences in Memory Performance." The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 58.1 (2003): 3-11.
• Hess, Thomas M., Joey T. Hinson, and Elizabeth A. Hodges. "Moderators of and Mechanisms Underlying Stereotype Threat Effects on Older Adults' Memory Performance." Experimental Aging Research 35.2 (2009): 153-177.
• Hirt, Edward R., Roberta K. Deppe, and Lesley J. Gordon. "Self-Reported Versus Behavioral Self-Handicapping: Empirical Evidence for a Theoretical Distinction." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61.6 (1991): 981- 991.
• Huber, Vandra L., and Margaret A. Neale. "Effects of Self- and Competitor Goals on Performance in an Interdependent Bargaining Task." Journal of Applied Psychology 72.2 (1987): 197-203.
• Johns, Michael, Toni Schmader, and Andy Martens. "Knowing is Half the Battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of improving women’s math performance." Psychological Science 16.3 (2005): 175-179.
• Keller, Johannes. "Blatant Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance: SelfHandicapping as a Strategic Means to Cope with Obtrusive Negative Performance Expectations." Sex Roles 47.3 (2002): 193-198.
• Keller, Johannes, and Herbert Bless. "When Negative Expectancies Turn Into Negative Performance: The Role of Ease of Retrieval." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 41.5 (2005): 535-541.
• Keller, Johannes, and Dirk Dauenheimer. "Stereotype Threat in the Classroom: Dejection Mediates the Disrupting Threat Effect on Women’s Math Performance." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 29.3 (2003): 371- 381.
• Keller, Johannes, and Denise Sekaquaptewa. "Solo Status and Women's Spatial Test Performance: The Role of Individuation Tendencies." European Journal of Social Psychology 38.6 (2008): 1044-1053.
• Kelly, David J., et al. "Three‐Month‐Olds, But not Newborns, Prefer Own‐Race Faces." Developmental Science 8.6 (2005): 31-37.
• Kiefer, Amy K., and Denise Sekaquaptewa. "Implicit Stereotypes and Women’s Math Performance: How Implicit Gender-Math Stereotypes Influence Women’s Susceptibility to Stereotype Threat." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 43.5 (2007): 825-832.
• Knowles, Megan L. et al. "Choking under Social Pressure: Social Monitoring among the Lonely." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 41.6 (2015): 805-821.
• Koenig, Anne M., and Alice H. Eagly. "Stereotype Threat in Men on a Test of Social Sensitivity." Sex Roles 52.7-8 (2005): 489-496.
• Kolditz, Thomas A., and Robert M. Arkin. "An Impression Management Interpretation of the Self-Handicapping Strategy." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 43.3 (1982): 492-502.
• Kray, Laura J, Adam D Galinsky, and Leigh Thompson. "Reversing the Gender Gap in Negotiations: An Exploration of Stereotype Regeneration." Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 87.2 (2002): 386-410.
• Lamont, Ruth A., Hannah J. Swift, and Dominic Abrams. "A Review and MetaAnalysis of Age-Based Stereotype Threat: Negative Stereotypes, Not Facts, Do the Damage." Psychology and Aging 30.1 (2015): 180-193.
• Lesko, Alexandra C., and Jennifer Henderlong Corpus. "Discounting the Difficult: How High Math-Identified Women Respond to Stereotype Threat." Sex Roles 54.1-2 (2006): 113-125.
• Levy, Becca. "Improving Memory in Old Age through Implicit SelfStereotyping." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 71.6 (1996): 1092-1107.
• Lu, Aitao et al. "Anxiety and Mind Wandering as Independent Consequences of Stereotype Threat." Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal 43.4 (2015): 537-558.
• Malcarne, Vanessa L. et al. "The Scale of Ethnic Experience: Development and Psychometric Properties." Journal of Personality Assessment 86.2 (2006): 150-161.
• McGlone, Matthew S., and R. Abigail Pfiester. "Stereotype Threat and the Evaluative Context of Communication." Journal of Language and Social Psychology 34.2 (2014): 111-137.
• McIntyre, Rusty B. et al. "Effects of Role Model Deservingness on Overcoming Performance Deficits Induced by Stereotype Threat." European Journal of Social Psychology 41.3 (2010): 301-311.
• Moon, Alice, and Scott S. Roeder. "A Secondary Replication Attempt of Stereotype Susceptibility (Shih, Pittinsky, & Ambady, 1999)." Social Psychology 45.3 (2014): 199-201.
• Mrazek, Michael D. et al. "Threatened to Distraction: Mind-Wandering as a Consequence of Stereotype Threat." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 47.6 (2011): 1243-1248.
• Nadler, Joel T., and M. H. Clark. "Stereotype Threat: A Meta-Analysis Comparing African Americans to Hispanic Americans." Journal of Applied Social Psychology 41.4 (2011): 872-890.
• Neale, Margaret A., and Max H. Bazerman. "The Effect of Externally Set Goals on Reaching Integrative Agreements in Competitive Markets." Journal of Organizational Behavior 6.1 (1985): 19-32.
• Nguyen, Hannah-Hanh D., and Ann Marie Ryan. "Does Stereotype Threat Affect Test Performance of Minorities and Women? A Meta-Analysis of Experimental Evidence." Journal of Applied Psychology 93.6 (2008): 1314-1334.
• Osborne, Jason W. "Linking Stereotype Threat and Anxiety." Educational Psychology 27.1 (2007): 135-154.
• Quinn, Diane M., and Steven J. Spencer. "The Interference of Stereotype Threat with Women's Generation of Mathematical Problem-Solving Strategies." Journal of Social Issues 57.1 (2001): 55-71.
• Régner, Isabelle, et al. "Our Future Scientists: A Review of Stereotype Threat in Girls from Early Elementary School to Middle School." Revue Internationale de Psychologie Sociale 27.3 (2014): 13-51.
• Rhodewalt, Frederick. "Conceptions of Ability, Achievement Goals, and Individual Differences in Self-Handicapping Behavior: On the Application of Implicit Theories." Journal of Personality 62.1 (1994): 67-85.
• ---. "Self-Handicappers: Individual Differences in the Preference for Anticipatory, Self-Protective Acts." Self-Handicapping: The Paradox That Isn’t. Raymond L.
• Higgins, Charles R. Snyder and Steven Berglas. New York: Plenum Press, 1990. 69-106.
• Rhodewalt, Frederick et al. "Self-Handicapping: The Role of Discounting and Augmentation in the Preservation of Self-Esteem." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 61.1 (1991): 122-131.
• Rhodewalt, Frederick et al. "Self-Handicapping and Interpersonal Trade-Offs: The Effects of Claimed Self-Handicaps on Observers' Performance Evaluations and Feedback." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 21.10 (1995): 1042-1050.
• Rice, Kenneth G. et al. "Perfectionism Moderates Stereotype Threat Effects on STEM Majors' Academic Performance." Journal of Counseling Psychology 60.2 (2013): 287-293.
• Sackett, Paul R., Chaitra M. Hardison, and Michael J. Cullen. "On Interpreting Stereotype Threat as Accounting for African American-White Differences on Cognitive Tests" American Psychologist 59.1 (2004): 7-13.
• Schmader, Toni, and Michael Johns. "Converging Evidence That Stereotype Threat Reduces Working Memory Capacity." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 85.3 (2003): 440-452.
• Schmader, Toni, Michael Johns, and Marchelle Barquissau. "The Costs of Accepting Gender Differences: The Role of Stereotype Endorsement in Women's Experience in the Math Domain." Sex Roles 50.11/12 (2004): 835-850.
• Seibt, Beate, and Jens Förster. "Stereotype Threat and Performance: How SelfStereotypes Influence Processing by Inducing Regulatory Foci." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 87.1 (2004): 38-56.
• Sekaquaptewa, Denise, and Mischa Thompson. "Solo Status, Stereotype Threat, and Performance Expectancies: Their Effects on Women’s Performance." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 39.1 (2003): 68-74.
• Sekaquaptewa, Denise, Andrew Waldman, and Mischa Thompson. "Solo Status and Self-Construal: Being Distinctive Influences Racial Self-Construal and Performance Apprehension in African American Women." Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology 13.4 (2007): 321-327.
• Shih, Margaret, Todd L. Pittinsky, and Nalini Ambady. "Stereotype Susceptibility: Identity Salience And Shifts In Quantitative Performance." Psychological Science 10.1 (1999): 80-83.
• Skorich, Daniel P. et al. "Stereotype Threat and Hazard Perception among Provisional License Drivers." Accident Analysis & Prevention 54 (2013): 39- 45.
• Smith, Jessi L. "The Interplay among Stereotypes, Performance-Avoidance Goals, and Women's Math Performance Expectations." Sex Roles 54.3-4 (2006): 287-296.
• Smith, Jessi L., Carol Sansone, and Paul H. White. "The Stereotyped Task Engagement Process: The Role of Interest and Achievement Motivation." Journal of Educational Psychology 99.1 (2007): 99-114.
• Smith, Jessi L., and Paul H. White. "An Examination of Implicitly Activated, Explicitly Activated, and Nullified Stereotypes on Mathematical Performance: It's Not Just a Woman's Issue." Sex Roles 47.3 (2002): 179-191.
• Smith, Timothy W., C. R. Snyder, and Mitchell M. Handelsman. "On the SelfServing Function of an Academic Wooden Leg: Test Anxiety as a SelfHandicapping Strategy." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 42.2 (1982): 314-321.
• Spencer, Steven J., Christine Logel, and Paul G. Davies. "Stereotype Threat." Annual Review of Psychology 67.1 (2016): 415-437.
• Spencer, Steven J., Claude M. Steele, and Diane M. Quinn. "Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 35.1 (1999): 4-28.
• Stangor, Charles, Christine Carr, and Lisa Kiang. "Activating Stereotypes Undermines Task Performance Expectations." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75.5 (1998): 1191-1197.
• Steele, Claude M. "A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance." American Psychologist 52.6 (1997): 613-629.
• Steele, Claude M., and Joshua Aronson. "Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 69.5 (1995): 797-811.
• Steele, Claude Mason, Steven J. Spencer, and Joshua Aronson. "Contending With Group Image: The Psychology of Stereotype and Social Identity Threat." Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 34. Ed. Mark P. Zanna. New York: Academic, 2002. 379-440.
• Stoet, Gijsbert, and David C. Geary. "Can Stereotype Threat Explain the Gender Gap in Mathematics Performance and Achievement?." Review of General Psychology 16.1 (2012): 93-102.
• Stone, Jeff. "Battling Doubt by Avoiding Practice: The Effects of Stereotype Threat on Self-Handicapping in White Athletes." Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 28.12 (2002): 1667-1678.
• Stone, Jeff, and Chad McWhinnie. "Evidence That Blatant Versus Subtle Stereotype Threat Cues Impact Performance through Dual Processes." Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 44.2 (2008): 445-452.
• Swift, H. J., D. Abrams, and S. Marques. "Threat or Boost? Social Comparison Affects Older People's Performance Differently Depending on Task Domain." The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences 68.1 (2012): 23-30.
• Tajfel, Henri. "Social Stereotypes and Social Groups." Intergroup Behavior. Eds. John C. Turner and Howard Giles. Oxford: Blackwell, 1981. 144-167.
• Tellhed, Una, and Fredrik Björjlund. "Stereotype Threat in Salary Negotiations is Mediated by Reservation Salary." Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 52.2 (2010): 185-195.
• Tice, Dianne M. "Esteem Protection or Enhancement? Self-Handicapping Motives and Attributions Differ by Trait Self-Esteem." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60.5 (1991): 711-725.
• Tomasetto, Carlo, Francesca Romana Alparone, and Mara Cadinu. "Girls' Math Performance under Stereotype Threat: The Moderating Role of Mothers' Gender Stereotypes." Developmental Psychology 47.4 (2011): 943-949.
• Urdan, Tim. "Predictors of Academic Self-Handicapping and Achievement: Examining Achievement Goals, Classroom Goal Structures, and Culture." Journal of Educational Psychology 96.2 (2004): 251-264.
• von Hippel, Courtney, Elise K. Kalokerinos, and Julie D. Henry. "Stereotype Threat among Older Employees: Relationship with Job Attitudes and Turnover Intentions." Psychology and Aging 28.1 (2013): 17-27.
• von Hippel, Courtney, Denise Sekaquaptewa, and Matthew McFarlane. "Stereotype Threat among Women in Finance." Psychology of Women Quarterly 39.3 (2015): 405-414.
• Wheeler, S. Christian, and Richard E. Petty. "The Effects of Stereotype Activation on Behavior: A Review of Possible Mechanisms." Psychological Bulletin 127.6 (2001): 797-826.
• Wout, Daryl A., Mary C. Murphy, and Sabrica Barnett. "When Having Black Friends Isn’t Enough." Social Psychological and Personality Science 5.7 (2014): 844- 851.
• Zuckerman, Miron, and Fen-Fang Tsai. "Costs of Self-Handicapping." Journal of Personality73.2 (2005): 411-442.