Motivation of Freelance Employees in the Gig Economy in Turkey

Öz

In the current industrial and organizational psychology literature, predominantly salaried, paid, permanent and full-time employees in a certain workplace and in a certain time period are represented. This study examines the motivations that pull / push the freelancers working on various online labour platforms to the gig economy in Turkey. In the study, mixed method was used as data collection technique. In the quantitative stage of the research, a survey was conducted on 117 people, while semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 people in the qualitative phase. Survey data in the SPSS 20.0 program, qualitative data were analyzed descriptively. As a result, it was understood that the most obvious motivation factors of freelancers are independence, success drive and flexibility. The Gig economy provides employees with the opportunity to work flexibly, allowing them to organize their own work programs and control their labor processes, while also contrasting with the optimistic depictions of a flexible economy. It is also seen that freelance employees feel free of friendship relationships, excluded and isolated from other people.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Gig Economy
• Motivation
• Freelance Work

Kaynakça

1. Abrah, K. G., Haltiwanger, J. C., Sandusky, K. & Spletzer, J. R. (2018). Measuring the “Gig” Economy:Current knowledge and Open Issues. National Bureau of Economic Research. p.54. https://www.nber.org/system/files/chapters/c13887/c13887.pdf
2. Amit, R., Maccrimmon, K., Zietsma, C. & Oesch, J. M. (2001), “Does Money Matter? Wealth Attainment as the Motive for Initiating Growth-orientated Technology Businesses”, Journal of Business Venturing, Vol. 16 No. 2, 119-43
3. Arthur, M. B. (1994). The Boundaryless Career: A New Perspective for Organizational Inquiry. Journal of organizational behavior, 15(4), 295-306.
4. Ashford, S. J., George, E. & Blatt, R. (2007). Old Assumptions, New Work. Academy of Management Annals, 1(1), 65–117. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/078559807
5. Ashford, S. J., Caza, B. B. & Reid, E. M. (2018). From Surviving to Thriving in the Gig Economy: A Research Agenda for Individuals in the New World of Work. Research in Organizational Behavior, 38, 23-41.
6. Bajwa, U., Gastaldo, D., Di Ruggiero, E. & Knorr, L. (2018). The Health of Workers in the Global Gig Economy. Globalization and Health, , 14(1),1-4.http://doi.org/10.1186/s12992-018-0444-8.
7. Baki, A.ve Gökçek, T. (2012). Karma Yöntem Araştirmalarına Genel Bi̇r Bakış. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 11(42), 1–21. http://doi.org/10.17755/esosder.92016
8. Barley, S. R. (2016). 60th Anniversary Essay: Ruminations on How We Became a Mystery House and How We Might Get Out. Administrative Science Quarterly, 61 (1), 1–8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0001839215624886.

9. Broughton, A., Gloster, R., Marvell, R., Green, M., Langley, J., & Martın, A. (2018). The Experiences of Individuals in the Gig Economy. Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy (BEIS).
10. Burchell, B., Ladipo, D. & Wilkinson, F. (Eds.). (2002). Job Insecurity and Work Intensification (pp. 53-80). London: Routledge.
11. Burke, A. (2011). The Entrepreneurship Enabling Role of Freelancers: Theory with Evidence from the Construction Industry. International Review of Entrepreneurship, 9(3), 28.
12. Burke, A. E., Fıtzroy, F. R. & Nolan, M. A. (2008). What Makes a Die-Hard Entrepreneur? Beyond the “Employee or Entrepreneur” Dichotomy. Small Bus Econ, 31, 93–115. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11187-007-9086-6
13. Buxant, C., Saroglou, V. & Tesser, M. (2010). Free-lance Spiritual Seekers: Self-Growth or Compensatory Motives?. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 13(2), 209-222.
14. Callahan, M., Shumpert, N. & Mast, M. (2002). Self-employment, Choice and Self-determination. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation, 17(2), 75-85.
15. CIPD (2017). To Gig or Not to Gig? Stories From the Modern Economy. Survey Report.https://www.cipd.co.uk/Images/to-gig-ornot-to-gig_2017-stories-from-the-modern-economy_tcm18-18955.pdf
16. Clınton, M., Totterdell, P. & Wood, S. (2006). A Grounded Theory of Portfolio Working Experiencing the Smallest of Small Businesses. International Small Business Journal, 24(2), 179–203. http://doi.org/10.1177/0266242606061843 Cobb-Clark, D. A. (2015). Locus of Control and the Labor Market. IZA Journal of Labor Economics, 4(1), 3.
17. Cohen, L. & Mallon, M. (1999). The Transition From Organisational Employment To Portfolio Working: Perceptions of“ Boundarylessness.” Work, EmploymentandSociety, 13, 329–352.
18. Conen, W., Schippers, J. & Schulze Buschoff, K. (2016). Self-employed without Personnel Between Freedom and Insecurity. WSI-Instıtute of Economic and Social Research. http://doi.org/10.1177/09500172004042772
19. Cook, C., Diamond, R., Hall, J., Lıst, J. & Oyer, P. (2018). The Gender Earnings Gap in the Gig Economy: Evidence from over a Million Rideshare Drivers. National Bureau of Economic Research. http://doi.org/10.3386/w24732
20. Cromie, A. & Hayes, J. (1991). Business Ownership as a Means of Overcoming Job Dissatisfaction, Personnel Review, 20(1), 19-24.
21. Çerkezoğlu, A. & Göztepe, Ö. (2010) “Sınıfını Arayan Siyasetten Siyasetini Arayan Sınıfa: Güvencesizler”, (ed. Gökhan Bulut) TEKEL Direnişinin Işığında Gelenekselden Yeniye İşçi Sınıfı Hareketi, Ankara: Notabene Yayınları
22. Dawson, C., Henley, A. & Latreılle, P. (2009). Why Do Individuals Choose Self-Employment? (No. No.3974). Bonn.
23. De Stefano, V. (2015). The Rise of the Just-in-time Workforce: On-demand Work, Crowdwork, and Labor Protection in the Gig Economy. Comp. Lab. L. and Pol'y J., 37, 471.
24. DELOITTE. (2017). Apprehensive Millennials: Seeking Stability and Opportunities in an Uncertain World.
25. https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/global/Documents/About-Deloitte/gx-deloitte-millennial-survey-2017-executive-summary.pdfE.T.10/01/2020
26. Dobre, O. I. (2013). Employee Motivation and Organizational Performance. Review of Applied Socio-Economic Research, 5(1).
27. Du Gay, P., Salaman, G. & Rees, B. (1996). The Conduct of Management and the Management of Conduct: Contemporary Managerial Discourse and the Constitution of the “Competent” Manager. Journal of Management Studies, 33(3), 263–82.
28. EY GLOBAL. (2018). The Gig Economy: a Chance to Control Your Costs or Accelerate Your Growth? https://www.ey.com/en_gl/growth/the-gig-economy--achance-to-control-your-costs-or-accelerate-yo
29. Fairlie, R. W. & Fossen, F. M. (2018). Opportunity Versus Necessity Entrepreneurship: Two Components of Business Creation. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3132357
30. Falout, J. (2010). Strategies for teacher motivation. The Language Teacher, 34(6), 27-32.
31. Fellegi, I. (2010). Survey Methods and Practices. Statistics Canada. http://doi.org/12-587-X
32. Finkin, M. (2016). “Beclouded Work in Historical Perspective,” Comparative Labor Law and Policy Journal 37(3), 603-618.
33. Fraser, J. & Gold, M. (2001). ‘Portfolio Workers’: Autonomy and Control Amongst Freelance Translators. Work, Employment and Society, 15(4), 679-697.
34. Fudge, J. (2003). Labour Protectıon for Self-employed Workers. Just Labour, 3, 36–44.
35. Fuller L. & Smith V. (1991) Consumers’ Reports: Management by Customers in a Changing Economy. Work, Employment and Society 5(1): 1–16.
36. Gandhı, A., Hidayanto, A. N., Sucahyo, Y. G. & RuldevıyanI, Y. (2018). Exploring People’s İntention to Become Platform-Based Gig Workers: An empirical Qualitative Study. In 2018 International Conference on Information Technology Systems and Innovation (ICITSI) (pp. 266-271). IEEE.
37. Garman, E. T., Leech, I. E. & Grable, J. E. (1996). The Negative İmpact of Employee Poor Personal Financial Behaviors on Employers. Financial counseling and planning, 7(1), 157-168.
38. Glavin, P., Bierman, A & Schieman, S. (2019). Workers in the Gig Economy Feel Lonely and Powerless, http://theconversation.com/workers-in-the-gig-economy-feel-lonely-and-powerless-127188
39. GonnellY, G. E. & Gallagher, D. G. (2004). Emerging Trends in Contingent Work Research. Journal of Management, 30, 959-983.
40. Green, D. D., Walker, C., Alabulththim, A., Smith, D. & Phillips, M. (2018). Fueling the Gig Economy: A Case Study Evaluation of Upwork.com. Management and Economics Research Journal, 04(April), 104–112. http://doi.org/10.18639/merj.2018.04.523634
41. Grimshaw, D., Cooke, F., Grugulis, I. & Vincent, S. (2002). New Technology and Changing Organisational Forms: İmplications for Managerial Control and Skills. New Technology, Work and Employment 17(3): 186–203.
42. Haar, J., Schmitz, A., Di Fabio, A. & Daellenbach, U. (2019). The Role of Relationships at Work and Happiness: A Moderated Moderated Mediation Study of New Zealand Managers. Sustainability, 11(12), 3443.
43. Henley, A., & Dawson, C. (2012). " Push" versus" Pull" Entrepreneurship: An Ambiguous Distinction?. International Journal of Entrepreneurial Behaviour and Research, 18(6).
44. Hessels, J., Van Gelderen, M. & Thurık, A.R. (2008), Entrepreneurial Aspirations, Motivations and Their Drivers”, Small Business Economics, Vol. 31 No. 3, 323-39.
45. Hunter, A. (2015). Crowdfunding İndependent andFreelanceJournalism: Negotiating Journalistic Norms of Autonomy and Objectivity. New Media and Society, 17(2), 272–288. http://doi.org/10.1177/1461444814558915
46. Ivankova, N. V., Creswell, J. W. & Stick, S. L. (2006). Using Mixed-Methods Sequential Explanatory Design: From Theory to Practice. Field Methods, 18(1), 3–20. http://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X05282260
47. Jabagi, N., Croteau, A. M., Audebrand, L. K. & Marsan, J. (2019). Gig-workers’ Motivation: Thinking Beyond Carrots and Sticks. Journal of Managerial Psychology. 34(4), 192-233.
48. Joe, G. M. S. (2017). Towards a Fairer Gig-Economy. Towards a Fairer Gig Economy.
49. Kaine, S. & Josserand, E. (2019). The Organisation and Experience of Work in the Gig Economy. Journal of Industrial Relations. http://doi.org/10.1177/0022185619865480
50. Kalleberg, A. & Dunn, M. (2016). Good Jobs, Bad Jobs in the Gig Economy. Perspectives on Work.
51. Kässi, O. & Lehdonvirta, V. (2018). Online Labour İndex: Measuring the Online Gig Economy for Policy and Research. Technological forecasting and social change, 137, 241-248.
52. Kirkwood, J. (2009), Motivational Factors in a Push‐Pull Theory of Entrepreneurship", Gender in Management, Vol. 24 No. 5, pp. 346-364. https://doi.org/10.1108/17542410910968805
53. Knights, D. & Morgan, G.(1191). Corporate Strategy, Organisations, and Subjectivity: A Critique. Journal of Management Studies, 1991, 12, 251–73.
54. Kuhn, K. M. (2016). The Rise of the “Gig Economy” and Implications for Understanding Work And Workers. Industrial and Organizational Psychology. http://doi.org/10.1017/iop.2015.129
55. Lindner, J. R. (1998). Understanding Employee Motivation. Journal of extension, 36(3), 1-8.
56. Littunen, H. 2000. Entrepreneurship and the Characteristics of the Entrepreneurial Personality. University of Jyväskylä, School of Business and Economics Centre for Economic Research. Research paper
57. Leech, N. L. & Onwuegbuzie, A. J. (2009). A Typology of Mixed Methods Research Designs. Quality and Quantity, 43(2), 265–275. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-007-9105-3
58. Lepanjuuri, K., Wishart, R. & Cornick, P. (2018). The Characteristics of Those in the Gig Economy. Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy.https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/687553/The_characteristics_of_those_in_the_gig_economy.pdf
59. London, M. (1993). Career Motivation of Full‐and Part‐Time Workers in Mid and Late Career. International Journal of Career Management, 5(1).
60. Mallon, M. (1998). From Public Sector Employees to Portfolio Workers: Pioneers of New Careers? In Experiencing Human Resource Management (pp.169–186). 1 Oliver’s Yard, 55 City Road, London EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom: SAGE Publications Ltd. http://doi.org/10.4135/9781446280263.n10
61. Manzoor, Q. A. (2012). Impact of Employees Motivation on Organizational Effectiveness. Business Management and Strategy, 3(1), 1-12.
62. Mcclelland, D.C. (1961). The Achieving Society. Priceton: Van Nostrans Reinhold.
63. Mckınsey Global Institute. (2016). Independent Work: Choice, Necessity, and the Gig Economy. McKinsey Global Institute,1-16.
64. Mkubukeli, Z. & Cronje, J. C. (2018). Pull and Push Elements of Entrepreneurship in South Africa: A Small-Scale Mining Perspective. J Entrepren Organiz Manag, 7(252), 2.
65. Neuman, W. L. (2014). Social Research Methods Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. Pearson.
66. Nies, G. & Pedersini, R. (2003). Report: Freelance Journalists in the European Media Industry. Brussels.
67. Petriglieri, G., Ashford, S. J. & Wrzesniewski, A. (2018). Agony and Ecstasy in the Gig Economy: Cultivating Holding Environments for Precarious and Personalized Work Identities. Administrative Science Quarterly. 64(1), 124-170. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/ 0001839218759646.
68. Ramlall, S. (2004). A Review of Employee Motivation Theories and Their İmplications for Employee Retention Within Organizations. Journal of American academy of business, 5(1/2), 52-63.
69. Rosenblat A. & Stark L. (2016) Algorithmic Labor and Information Asymmetries: A Case Study of Uber’s Drivers. International Journal of Communication 10: 3758–3784.
70. Sandelowski, M. (2000). Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Sampling, Data Collection, and Analysis Techniques in Mixed-Method Studies. Research in Nursing and Health, 23(3), 246–255.
71. Sapienza, H. J., Korsgaard, M. A. & Forbes, D. P. (2003). The Self-determınatıon Motıve and Entrepreneurs’Choıce of Fınancıng. In Cognitive Approaches To Entrepreneurship Research. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
72. Schmıtt, A., Den Hartog, D. N. & Belschak, F. D. (2015). Is outcome Responsibility at Work Emotionally Exhausting? Investigating Employee Proactivity as a Moderator. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 20(4), 491–500. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0039011
73. Sennet, R. (2005) Karakter Aşınması- Yeni Kapitalizmde İşin Kişilik Üzerindeki Etkileri, İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
74. Shane, S., Locke, E. A. & Collins, C. J. (2003). Entrepreneurial Motivation. Human Resource Management Review, 13(2), 257–279.
75. Spillan, J. E. & Brazier, R. (2003). External and Internal Locus of Control’s Influence on Women Entrepreneurs: An Exploratory Study. OMEA-MBAA 2003 Proceedings, 61-70.
76. Stanworth, C. & Stanworth, J. (1995). The Self-Employed Without Employees-Autonomous or Atypical? Industrial Relations Journal, 26(3), 221–229. http://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2338.1995.tb00739.x
77. Startienė, G., Remeikienė, R. & Dumčiuvienė, D. (2010). Concept of self-Employment. Economic and Management, 15, 262–274.
78. Teodoro, R., Özturk, P., Naaman, M., Mason, W. & Lindqvist, J. (2014). The Motivations And Experiences Of The On-Demand Mobile Workforce. In Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing (pp. 236-247).
79. Waldorf, G. (2016).Why Working Multiple Jobs will be the New Normal. Entrepreneur, July 12. Retrieved Dec. 6 from www.entrepreneur.com/article/278769.
80. Ward, E. A. (1993). Motivation of Expansion Plans of Entrepreneurs and Small Business Managers. Journal of Small Business Management, 31(1), 32.
81. Wegge, J., Van Dick, R., Fisher, G. K., Wecking, C. & Moltzen, K. (2006). Work motivation, organisational identification, and well-being in call centre work. Work and Stress, 20(1), 60-83.
82. Williams, J. & Curtis, T. (2007). CIM Coursebook 06/07 Marketing Management in Practice. Routledge