An International Governance Model for the Management of Lunar Resources: A Proposal from the Perspective of UNCLOS and the Antarctic Treaty System

Yıl 2025, Cilt: 29 Sayı: 2, 917 - 953, 22.12.2025

Hilal Cecanpınar

https://doi.org/10.60002/ebyuhfd.1769049

Öz

Mining activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies mark the beginning of a new era in the commercialization of space exploration, directly impacting not only economic competition but also the sustainability of scientific research, environmental protection, and the future of the “common heritage of mankind” principle. Existing international space law, particularly the 1967 Outer Space Treaty and the 1979 Moon Agreement, does not provide a binding or institutionalized international mechanism for resource management, resulting in legal uncertainties and the risk of unequal access to lunar resources. By contrast, comparable “common heritage” domains such as the international seabed (UNCLOS) and Antarctica (Antarctic Treaty System) have established detailed governance structures that secure equitable benefit-sharing, environmental protection, and scientific cooperation through binding provisions. There is a limited scholarship offering an in-depth comparison of these two governance models in the context of the Moon, leaving a significant research gap. This study addresses that gap by conducting a comparative analysis of the institutional and legal features of the International Seabed Authority under UNCLOS and the governance framework of the Antarctic Treaty System, examining how these models could inform the design of a yet-to-be-determined governance mechanism for the Moon under the Moon Agreement. Using a comparative legal methodology, the study identifies similarities, differences, and transferable governance practices among the three regimes. The findings underscore the need for establishing a binding international authority to ensure the peaceful, equitable, and sustainable conduct of lunar mining activities. They provide concrete legal and policy recommendations for strengthening the current space law regime, institutionalizing international cooperation, and making environmental protection measures legally enforceable.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Key Words: Lunar mining , Common heritage of mankind , International governance , Space law , Equitable benefit-sharing.

Ay Kaynaklarının Yönetimi İçin Uluslararası Yönetim Modeli: BMDHS ve Antarktika Antlaşma Sistemi Perspektifinden Bir Öneri

Öz

Ay yüzeyinde ve diğer gök cisimlerinde yürütülecek madencilik faaliyetleri, uzay araştırmalarının ticarileşmesinde yeni bir dönemin kapısını aralamakta; yalnızca ekonomik rekabeti değil, aynı zamanda bilimsel araştırmaların sürdürülebilirliğini, çevresel korumayı ve “insanlığın ortak mirası” ilkesinin geleceğini de doğrudan etkilemektedir. Mevcut uluslararası uzay hukuku, özellikle 1967 tarihli Dış Uzay Antlaşması ve 1979 tarihli Ay Antlaşması, kaynak yönetimine ilişkin bağlayıcı ve kurumsallaşmış bir uluslararası mekanizma öngörmemekte, bu nedenle Ay kaynaklarının yönetiminde hukuki belirsizlikler ve eşitsiz erişim riskleri ortaya çıkmaktadır. Oysa benzer “ortak miras” alanları olan uluslararası deniz yatağı (BMDHS) ve Antarktika (Antarktika Antlaşma Sistemi) için ayrıntılı yönetişim yapıları kurulmuş, kaynakların adil paylaşımı, çevresel koruma ve bilimsel iş birliği bağlayıcı hükümlerle güvence altına alınmıştır. Literatürde bu iki modelin Ay bağlamında derinlemesine karşılaştırıldığı çalışmalar sınırlı olup, bu durum önemli bir araştırma boşluğu yaratmaktadır. Bu çalışma, BMDHS kapsamındaki Uluslararası Deniz Yatağı Otoritesi ve Antarktika Antlaşma Sistemi’nin kurumsal ve hukuki özelliklerini inceleyerek, Ay Antlaşması’nda öngörülmeyen yönetim mekanizmasının nasıl tasarlanabileceğine ilişkin karşılaştırmalı bir analiz sunmakta ve gelecekteki olası düzenlemeler için normatif öneriler geliştirmektedir. Araştırmada karşılaştırmalı hukuk yöntemi kullanılarak, üç rejim arasındaki benzerlikler, farklılıklar ve uygulanabilir yönetim modelleri tespit edilmiş; bulgular, Ay madenciliğinin barışçıl, adil ve sürdürülebilir şekilde yürütülmesi için uluslararası bağlayıcı bir otoritenin gerekliliğini ortaya koymuştur. Elde edilen sonuçlar, mevcut uzay hukuku rejiminin güçlendirilmesi, uluslararası iş birliğinin kurumsallaştırılması ve çevresel koruma önlemlerinin bağlayıcı hale getirilmesi yönünde somut politika ve hukuk önerileri sunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Anahtar Kelimeler: Ay madenciliği , İnsanlığın ortak mirası , Uluslararası yönetişim , Uzay hukuku , Kaynakların adil paylaşımı

Kaynakça

• “Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies”, 1979, https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_3 4_68E.pdf, E.T. 10.06.2025.
• “Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies”, 1979, https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=IND& mtdsg_no= XXIV-2&chapter=24&clang=_en, E.T. 25.06.2025.
• “Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea”, 1994, https://www.un.org/ depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/agreement_part_xi/agreement_part_xi.htm, E.T. 25.06.2025.
• Akıl, Abdülkadir, “Uluslararası Hukuk Çerçevesinde İnsanlığın Ortak Mirası Olarak Antarktika”, Erciyes Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, C. 16, S. 2, 2021, s. 339-363.
• Akkutay, Ali İbrahim, “Uluslararası Hukuk Bakımından Derin Deniz Yatağında Yer Alan Kaynakların Araştırılması, Keşfi ve İşletilmesi”, Ankara Barosu Dergisi, C. 2, 2016, s. 157-193.
• Anlar Güneş, Şule, “Maden Kaynaklarının Yönetimi Bağlamında Uluslararası Deniz Yatağı Otoritesinin Rolü”, Uluslararası İlişkiler, C. 17, S.65, 2020, s. 101-124.
• “Artemis Accords”, 2020, https://www.nasa.gov/artemis-accords/, E.T. 20.06.2025.
• Bartóki-Gönczy, Balázs/Nagy, Boldizsár, “The Artemis Accords”, International Legal Materials, C. 62, S. 5, 2023, s. 888-898.
• Bektaş, Sezercan, Uluslararası Deniz Yatağının İşletilmesi ve Deniz Yatağı Uluslararası Otoritesi, Legem Yayıncılık, Ankara 2016.
• Bhat, Sandeepa B./Ukey, Dilip/Variath, Adithya, The Contribution of the United Nations to the Development of International Space Law, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2024.
• Bourrel, Marie/Thiele, Torsten/Currie, Duncan, “The Common Heritage of Mankind as a Means to Assess and Advance Equity in Deep Sea Mining”, Marine Policy, C. 95, Eylül 2018, s. 311-316.
• Brady, Anne-Marie, The Emerging Politics of Antarctica, Routledge, New York 2013.
• Cheney, Thomas, “There is No Rush: Developing a Legal Framework for Space Resource Activities”, Journal of Space Law, C. 43, 2019, s. 106-150.
• Christol, Carl Q., “The Moon Treaty Enters Into Force”, American Journal of International Law, C. 79, S. 1, Ocak 1985, s. 163-168.
• Coffeyt, Sarah, “Establishing a Legal Framework for Property Rights to Natural Resources in Outer Space”, Case Western Reserve Journal of International Law, C. 41, S. 1, 2009, s. 119-148.
• “Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act”, 2015, https://www.congress.gov/ bill/114th congress/house-bill/1508/text, E.T. 21.06.2025.
• “Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals”, 1972, https://documents. ats.aq/keydocs/vol_1/vol1_13_ccas_ccas_e.pdf, E.T. 26.06. 2025.
• “Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources”, 1980, https://www.ccamlr.org/en/organisation/camlr-convention, E.T. 26.06.2025.
• “Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space”, 1963, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/oosadoc/data/resolutions/1963/general_assembly_18th_session/res_1962_xviii.html, E.T. 20.06.2025.
• Deplano, Rossana, “Inclusive Space Law: The Concept of Benefit Sharing in the Outer Space Treaty”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, C. 72, S. 3, Temmuz 2023, s. 671-714.
• Deplano, Rossana, “The Artemis Accords: Evolution or Revolution in International Space Law?”, International and Comparative Law Quarterly, C. 70, S. 3, Temmuz 2021, s. 799-819.
• Egede, Edwin, “Common Heritage of Mankind and the Deep Seabed Area Beyond National Jurisdiction: Past, Current, and Future Prospects”, Marine Technology Society, C. 55, S. 6, 2021, s. 40-52.
• Fitzmaurice, Malgosia, “The History of Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice”, The Oxford Handbook of the Sources of International Law, Ed. Samantha Besson/Jean d’Aspremont, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2018, s. 179-200.
• Flamm, Patrick, “Legitimating the Antarctic Treaty System: From Rich Nations Club to Planetary Ecological Democracy?”, Australian Journal of International Affairs, C. 76, S. 3, Mayıs 2022, s. 266-285.
• Frakes, Jennifer, “The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle and Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica: Will Developed and Developing Nations Reach a Compromise”, Wisconsin International Law Journal, C. 21, S. 2, 2003, s. 409-437.
• Freeland, Steven/Martin, Anne-Sophie, “The Contribution of the United Nations to the Development of International Space Law”, International Space Law in the New Space Era: Principles and Challenges, Ed. Catherine Banet, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2024, s. 38-65.
• Goh, Gérardine Meishan, “Softly, Softly Catchee Monkey: Informalism and the Quiet Development of International Space Law”, Nebraska Law Review, C. 87, S. 3, 2008, s. 725-746.
• Gorove, Stephen, “The Concept of ‘Common Heritage of Mankind’: A Political Moral or Legal Innovation”, San Diego Law Review, C. 9, S. 3, 1972, s. 390-403.
• “Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space”, 2021, https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/PromotingSpaceSustainability/Publication_Final_English_June2021.pdf, E.T. 20.06.2025.
• Günel, Reşat V., Uluslararası Hukuk Açısından Uzay Madenciliği, Turhan Kitabevi Yayınları, Ankara 2016.
• Jaeckel, Aline L., The International Seabed Authority and the Precautionary Principle: Balancing Deep Seabed Mineral Mining and Marine Environmental Protection, Brill Nijhoff, Boston 2017.
• Jaeckel, Aline/Ardron, Jeff A./Gjerde, Kristina M., “Sharing Benefits of the Common Heritage of Mankind – Is the Deep Seabed Mining Regime Ready?”, Marine Policy, C. 70, Ağustos 2016, s. 198-204.
• Joyner, Christopher C., “Legal Implications of the Concept of the Common Heritage of Mankind”, The International and Comparative Law Quarterly, C. 35, S. 1, 1986, s. 190-213.
• Keyuan, Zou, “The Common Heritage of Mankind and the Antarctic Treaty System”, Netherlands International Law Review, C. 38, S. 2, 1991, s. 173-198.
• Kıvılcım, Zeynep, Uluslararası Kamu Hukukunda İnsanlığın Ortak Mirası, XII Levha Yayıncılık, İstanbul 2010.
• Koch, Jonathan Sydney, “Institutional Framework for the Province of All Mankind: Lessons from the International Seabed Authority for the Governance of Commercial Space Mining”, Astropolitics, C. 16, S. 1, Nisan 2018, s. 5-27.
• Kułaga, Łukasz, “Implementation of Soft Law Relating to Outer Space into Domestic Law”, Studia Iuridica, S. 97, Eylül 2023, s. 26-37.
• Lodge, Michael W., “The Common Heritage of Mankind”, The International Journal of Marine and Coastal Law, C. 27, S. 4, 2012, s. 733-742.
• Manoli, Maria, “The Architecture of Authority in Global Space Governance: The Moon Agreement as a Deconflicting Mechanism of Space Activities”, Utrecht Law Review, C. 20, S. 1, Mayıs 2024, s. 106-120.
• Meray, Seha L., Uzay ve Milletlerarası Hukuk, AÜSBF Yayınları, Ankara 1964.
• Nandan, Satya N./Lodge, Michael W./Rosenne, Shabtai, The Development of the Regime for Deep Seabed Mining, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands 2002.
• Noyes, John E., “The Common Heritage of Mankind: Past, Present, and Future”, Denver Journal of International Law & Policy, C. 40, S. 1, 2011, s. 447-471.
• Oduntan, Olugbenga Toluwaleke, Sovereignty and Jurisdiction in the Airspace and Outer Space: Legal Criteria for Spatial Delimitation, University of Kent, Kent 2002.
• Oosterveld, Valerie, “As Space Exploration Takes Off, Governance Struggles for Lift”, Center for International Governance Innovation, 2004, https://www.cigionline.org/articles/as-space-exploration-takes-off-governance-struggles-for-lift/, E.T. 15.08.2025.
• “Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty”, 1991, https://www. ats.aq/e/protocol.html, E.T. 26.06.2025.
• Rabitz, Florian, “Space Resources and the Politics of International Regime Formation”, International Journal of the Commons, C. 17, S. 1, Ağustos 2023, s. 243-260.
• “Safety Framework for Nuclear Power Source Applications in Outer Space”, 2009, https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/publications/iaea-nps-sfrmwrkE.pdf, E.T. 20.06.2025.
• Saul, Ben/Stephens, Tim, Antarctica in International Law, Bloomsbury Publishing, London 2015.
• Scott, Karen N., “Scientific Rhetoric and Antarctic Security”, Antarctic Security in the Twenty-First Century: Legal and Policy Perspectives, Ed. Alan D. Hemmings/Donald R. Rothwell/Karen N. Scott, Routledge, New York 2013, s. 250-270.
• Seyitoğlu Danışman, Zeynep, Uzayda ve Uzaydaki Gök Cisimleri Üzerinde Devlet Egemenliği ve Mülkiyet, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi SBE, 2019.
• Seyitoğlu, Zeynep, “Uzay Hukukunun Temel Kaynakları Çerçevesinde ASAT Testlerinin Hukukiliği”, HBV-HFD, C. 29, S. 2, 2025, s. 753-804.
• “Space Activities Law”, 2019, https://uaelegislation.gov.ae/en/legislations/2129/ download, E.T. 21.06.2025.
• “Space Resources Act”, 2017, https://legilux.public.lu/eli/etat/leg/loi/20 17/07/20/ a674/jo, E.T. 21.06.2026.
• “Space Resources Act”, 2021, https://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/en/laws/view/ 4332/en, E.T. 21.06.2025.
• Steele, Scott Michael, “International Space Law: A Hindrance to Space Activities or a Resolute Action for Change”, American Journal of Aerospace Engineering, C. 9, S. 1, 2022, s. 1-13.
• Tanaka, Yoshifumi, The International Law of the Sea, 1. Bası, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 2012.
• “The Antarctic Treaty”, 1959, https://www.ats.aq/e/antarctictreaty.html, E.T. 26.06.2025.
• “Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies”, 1967, https://www.unoosa.org/pdf/gares/ARES_21_2222E.pdf, E.T. 10.06.2025.
• Trolle-Anderson, Rolph, “The Antarctic Scene: Legal and Political Facts”, The Antarctic Treaty Regime: Law, Environment and Resources, Ed. Gillian D. Triggs, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1987, s. 57-64.
• Tronchetti, Fabio, “Moon Agreement: Key Provisions”, International Space Law in the New Space Era: Principles and Challenges, Ed. Sandeepa B. Bhat/Dilip Ukey/Adithya Variath, Oxford University Press, Oxford 2024, s. 165-182.
• “United Nations General Assembly, 22nd Session”, 1967, https://digitallibrary. un.org/record/800578?v=pdf, E.T. 15.06.2025.
• UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, “Status of International Agreements Relating to Activities in Outer Space as at 1 January 2024”, 2024, https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/spacelaw/treaties/status/index.html, E.T. 26.06.2025.
• United Nations General Assembly, “Declaration of Principles Governing the Sea-Bed and the Ocean Floor and the Subsoil Thereof, beyond the Limits of National Jurisdiction”, 1970, https://docs.un.org/en/A/RES/2749%20(XXV), E.T. 15.06.2025.
• United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs, “Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities of the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space”, 2021, https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/PromotingSpaceSustainability/ Publication_Final_English_June2021.pdf, E.T. 20.06.2025.
• von der Dunk, Frans, “International Space Law”, Handbook of Space Law, Ed. Frans von der Dunk/Fabio Tronchetti, Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham 2015, 1. Bası, s. 55-90.
• Willaert, Klaas, “The Enterprise: State of Affairs, Challenges and Way Forward”, Marine Policy, C. 131, 2021, s. 1-10.
• Wolfrum, Rüdiger, “Common Heritage of Mankind”, Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law, 2009, s. 1-10.
• Xu, Fengna/Su, Jinyuan, “New Elements in the Hague Space Resources Governance Working Group’s Building Blocks”, Space Policy, C. 53, 2020, s. 1-5.
• Xu, Fengna/Su, Jinyuan/Mehdi, Miqdad, “A Re-Examination of Fundamental Principles of International Space Law at the Dawn of Space Mining”, Journal of Space Law, C. 44, S. 1, 2020, s. 17-50.
• Zhao, Yun/Li, Xiaodao, “An Exclusive Property Model for the Common Heritage of Mankind: A Multilateral Regime for Natural Resources in Outer Space”, Brooklyn Journal of International Law, C. 47, S. 1, 2021, s. 90-149.