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International Broadcasting within the Pendulum of Propaganda, Public Diplomacy and Objectivity: A Series of Functions within The Axis of Transitivity

Yıl 2019, , 641 - 662, 21.01.2019
https://doi.org/10.17680/erciyesiletisim.473012

Öz

International broadcasting, an activity that is implicitly or explicitly supported by States,
has historically had an important place in shaping international communication. Although
this type of broadcasting differs from the commercial international media category in terms
of its preferred target group and ownership, it has some common points with the abovementioned category in terms of shaping the international communication field and reflecting
the perspectives of the related states. International broadcasting, which began in the first
half of the 20th century with shortwave radio, continued with satellite television since the
mid-1980s. As internet was slowly appearing as a dominant actor in mass communication
environment in the 1990s, a new channel was opened for international broadcasting. In the
21st century, social media as a part of internet transformed the communication environment
with the opportunities and potentials it offers and international broadcasting was affected in
terms of meaning, scope and function. At the beginning, international broadcasting has been
identified with propaganda due to the socio-political atmosphere of the period in which it
came to life. However, in time, as international broadcasting became less dependent to states,
it started being regarded as an instrument of public diplomacy and a tool overlapping more
with the traditional journalistic ideals/principles such as objectivity, versatility, balance and
accuracy. Together with the propaganda function which was initially regarded as the basic
function of international broadcasting, public diplomacy and the ideal of objectivity have also
started to be perceived as the other functions of it. Public diplomacy and the ideal of objectivity,
contrary to propaganda function amount to both a chance to choose and realm of necessity. In
particular, it can be said that the social media, which includes users as the content producer
and publisher, imposes a transformative motivation in this sense. From this perspective;
based on the literature review in this study, international broadcasting will be discussed
within the framework of the functions, values, codes and practices inherent in this activity.
Moreover, the common points between international broadcasting and public diplomacy
will be considered as well as addressing the possible changes of international broadcasting
in an era characterized by new communication technologies. In this context, the functions of
international broadcasting can be explained an analogy by three swings on a pendulum with
propaganda at one end, public diplomacy in the middle and an ideal of objectivity at the other.
That the pendulum can swing between the above-mentioned functions in transitivity can be
considered as the most important thing to understand pendulum’s motions. 

Kaynakça

  • Amerikanın Sesi. Erişim: 05 Eylül 2015, http://www.amerikaninsesi.com/info/bizkimiz/1920.html.
  • Atewolara-Odule, O. A., Ojo, T. O. ve Akinreti, Q. (2016). The Roles of International Broadcasting in Revamping Nigeria’s Public Image, Implications for Nationalism Among Nigerian Youths. Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, 6(3), 13-31.
  • Brodsky. L. N. (2010). Democracy Across The Airwaves, The Strategic Work Of American International Broadcasting in Azerbaijan and Iran. Doktora tezi, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Medford.
  • Bumpus, B. ve Skelt, B. (1984) Seventy Years of International Broadcasting (Communication and Society 14). Paris: UNESCO.
  • Castells, M. (2005). The Network Society: From Knowledge to Policy. M. Castells ve G. Cardoso (Ed.). The Network Society, From Knowledge to Policy (3-21). Washington: Johns Hopkins Center for Transatlantic Relations.
  • Codding, G. (1959). Broadcasting without Barriers. Netherlands: UNESCO.
  • Cull, N. J. (1995) Selling War: The British propaganda campaign against American “neutrality” in World War II. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Cull, N. J. (2008). Public Diplomacy, Taxonomies and Histories. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616, 31-54.
  • Cummings, R. H. (2009). Cold War Radio. The Dangerous History of American Broadcasting in Europe, 1950–1989. Jefferson:, McFarland and Company.
  • Demirkıran, C. (2008). Uluslararası Televizyon Yayıncılığının Tarihsel Gelişim Süreci, Fransa TV5 MONDE ile Türkiye TRT-INT ve TRT TÜRK Karşılaştırmalı İncelemesi. Doktora tezi, İstanbul Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
  • Devran, Y. (2015). Yeni Türkiye’nin Küresel Sesi TRT World, Fırsatlar ve Güçlükler. E-journal of Intermedia, 2(2), 281-294.
  • Douai, A. (2009). International Broadcasting and The Management of Foreign Public Opinion, The Case of Al-Hurra Television in The “Arab Street”. Doktora tezi, The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania.
  • Ergüler, D. (2015). Akıllı Saatler Habercilik Dünyasını Nasıl Etkileyecek. Erişim: 18 Mayıs 2015, http://p24blog.org/yazarlar/901/akilli-saatler-habercilik-dunyasininasil-etkileyecek. Limbourg, P. (2014). Social Media–Chances and Challenges for International Broadcasting. Global-ICT, 12-13.
  • Norihiro, T. (2009). International Television Broadcasting in East Asia, Current Situation and Challenges. NHK Broadcasting Studies, 7, 21-53.
  • Ojomo, O. ve Olomojobi, O. (2012). International Broadcasting, National Security and the Public’s Right to Know. Benin Mediacom Journal, 5, 43-53.
  • O’Keeffe, A. ve Oliver A. (2010). International Broadcasting and Its Contribution to Public Diplomacy. Lowy Institute for International Policy.
  • Price, M. (2003). Public Diplomacy and the Transformation of International Broadcasting. Cardozo Arts and Entertainment Law Journal, 21(1), 51-85.
  • Price, M., Haas, S. ve Margolin, D. (2008). New Technologies and International Broadcasting: Reflections on Adaptations and Transformations. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616(1), 150-172.
  • Ronalds, F. S. (1971). The Future of International Broadcasting. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 398, 71-80.
  • Powers, S. M. ve Youmans, W. (2012) A New Purpose for International Broadcasting, Subsidizing Deliberative Technologies in Non-transitioning States. Journal of Public Deliberation, 8(1), 1-14.
  • Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Erişim: 05 Eylül 2015, http://www.rferl.org/info/ mission/169.html.
  • Rawnsley, G. D. (2016). Introduction to “International Broadcasting and Public Diplomacy in the 21st Century”. Media and Communication, 4(2), 42-45.
  • Rawnsley, Garry D. (1996). Radio Diplomacy and Propaganda. The BBC and VOA in International Politics, 1956-64. Houndmills: Macmillan Press.
  • Rawnsley, G. D. (1999). The BBC External Services and the Hungarian Uprising,1956. G. D. Rawnsley (Ed.). Cold-War Propaganda in the 1950 (165-181). Houndmills: Macmillan Press.
  • Richter, C. (2008). International Broadcasting and Intercultural Dialogue: Deutsche Welle in the Arab World. Arab Media & Society, 6, 1-11.
  • Risso, L. (2013) Radio Wars: Broadcasting in the Cold War. Cold War History, 13(2), 145-152
  • Si, S. (2014). Expansion of International Broadcasting. The Growing Global Reach of China Central Television. Oxford: Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. The Edward R. Murrow Center of Public Diplomacy. Erişim: 01 Eylül 2015, http:// fletcher.tufts.edu/Murrow/Diplomacy.
  • United States Broadcasting Board of Governors. Erişim: 05 Eyül 2015. http://www. bbg.gov/wp-content/media/2012/01/BroadcastingAct.pdf.
  • Taylor, P. M. (2003). Munitions of the Mind. A History of Propaganda from The Ancient World to The Present Era. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
  • TRT World. Erişim: 15 Ekim 2018, https://www.trtworld.com.
  • Türkiye’nin Sesi Radyosu. Erişim: 15 Ekim 2018, http://www.turkiyeninsesiradyosu. com/ ?r=site/content&id=32
  • Weed, M. C. (2016). U.S. International Broadcasting, Background and Issues for Reform (R43521). Washington: Congressional Research Service.
  • Wood, J.(2008). History of International Broadcasting Volume 1. London: The Institution of Engineering and Technology.
  • Zöllner, O. (2011). International Broadcasting in the Social Network Era, New Allegiances in Deterritorialized Space Call for New Public Diplomacy. Erişim: 22 Haziran 2011, http://publicdiplomacymagazine.com/international-broadcasting-inthe-social-network-era-new-allegiances-in-deterritorialized-space-call-fornew-public-diplomacy/.

Propaganda, Kamu Diplomasisi ve Nesnellik Sarkacında Uluslararası Yayıncılık: Geçişkenlik Ekseninde Bir İşlevler Dizisi

Yıl 2019, , 641 - 662, 21.01.2019
https://doi.org/10.17680/erciyesiletisim.473012

Öz

Devletler tarafından örtük veya açık biçimlerde desteklenen bir yayın faaliyeti olan
uluslararası yayıncılık, uluslararası iletişimin şekillenmesinde önemli bir tarihsel pratiğe
işaret etmektedir. Bu yayıncılık türü, tecimsel uluslararası medya kategorisinden öncelikli
hedef kitlesi ve sahiplik gibi açılardan farklılaşmakla birlikte uluslararası iletişim alanının
şekillendirilmesi ve ilgili devletlerin bakış açılarını yansıtma gibi noktalarda kimi zaman
örtüşmektedir. 20. yüzyılın ilk yarısında kısa dalga radyo üzerinden başlayan uluslararası
yayıncılık, 1980’lerin ortalarından itibaren uydu televizyonu ile devam etmiştir. 1990’lı
yıllarda internetin aşama aşama belirleyici bir aktör olarak kitle iletişimi ortamına dahil
olmasıyla birlikte uluslararası yayıncılık için yeni bir mecra daha açılmıştır. 21. yüzyıla
gelindiğinde ise internetle birlikte, sunduğu imkân ve potansiyeller ile iletişim ortamını
dönüştüren sosyal medya, uluslararası yayıncılığın anlam, kapsam ve işlev dünyasını
da önemli ölçüde etkilemiştir. Başlangıçta, içinde hayat bulduğu dönemin sosyo-politik
atmosferinin de etkisiyle propagandayla özdeşleşen uluslararası yayıncılık, zaman içinde
iletişim ortamının çeşitlenmesi ve giderek merkezkaç özellik kazanmasıyla birlikte
hem kamu diplomasisi enstrümanı olarak işlevselleşme hem de nesnellik, çok yönlülük,
dengelilik, doğruluk gibi geleneksel gazetecilik idealleri/ilkeleriyle daha fazla örtüşme
yönünde bir opsiyonla karşı karşıya kalmıştır. İlk dönemlerdekinden farklılaşan bu
işlevsellikler, hem bir tercih alanına işaret etmekte hem de yer yer bir zorunluluk olarak
kendini dayatmaktadır. Özellikle, kullanıcıları içerik üreticisi ve yayımcısı olarak iletişim
ortamına dahil eden sosyal medyanın bu anlamda dönüştürücü bir motivasyonu dayattığı
da söylenebilir. Bu perspektiften hareketle; söz konusu çalışmada literatür taramasına
dayalı olarak uluslararası yayıncılık, bu yayıncılık faaliyetine içkin işlevler, değerler, kodlar
ve pratikler örgüsü çerçevesinde tartışmaya açılmaktadır. Ayrıca, uluslararası yayıncılığın
kamu diplomasisi olgusuyla kesişim noktaları ele alınmakta ve yeni iletişim teknolojilerinin
karakterize ettiği bir dönemde uluslararası yayıncılığın önündeki değişim alanları
irdelenmektedir. Bu bağlamda uluslararası yayıncılığın işlev ve kodları, bir analojiyle
bir ucunda propaganda, ortasında kamu diplomasisi ve diğer ucunda nesnellik idealinin
olduğu bir sarkaç hareketiyle açıklanabilir. Bu sarkacın hareketlerine rengini veren temel
dinamiklerden biri ise söz konusu işlevler arasında geçişkenliklerin yaşanabilmesidir. 

Kaynakça

  • Amerikanın Sesi. Erişim: 05 Eylül 2015, http://www.amerikaninsesi.com/info/bizkimiz/1920.html.
  • Atewolara-Odule, O. A., Ojo, T. O. ve Akinreti, Q. (2016). The Roles of International Broadcasting in Revamping Nigeria’s Public Image, Implications for Nationalism Among Nigerian Youths. Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, 6(3), 13-31.
  • Brodsky. L. N. (2010). Democracy Across The Airwaves, The Strategic Work Of American International Broadcasting in Azerbaijan and Iran. Doktora tezi, The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, Medford.
  • Bumpus, B. ve Skelt, B. (1984) Seventy Years of International Broadcasting (Communication and Society 14). Paris: UNESCO.
  • Castells, M. (2005). The Network Society: From Knowledge to Policy. M. Castells ve G. Cardoso (Ed.). The Network Society, From Knowledge to Policy (3-21). Washington: Johns Hopkins Center for Transatlantic Relations.
  • Codding, G. (1959). Broadcasting without Barriers. Netherlands: UNESCO.
  • Cull, N. J. (1995) Selling War: The British propaganda campaign against American “neutrality” in World War II. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Cull, N. J. (2008). Public Diplomacy, Taxonomies and Histories. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616, 31-54.
  • Cummings, R. H. (2009). Cold War Radio. The Dangerous History of American Broadcasting in Europe, 1950–1989. Jefferson:, McFarland and Company.
  • Demirkıran, C. (2008). Uluslararası Televizyon Yayıncılığının Tarihsel Gelişim Süreci, Fransa TV5 MONDE ile Türkiye TRT-INT ve TRT TÜRK Karşılaştırmalı İncelemesi. Doktora tezi, İstanbul Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
  • Devran, Y. (2015). Yeni Türkiye’nin Küresel Sesi TRT World, Fırsatlar ve Güçlükler. E-journal of Intermedia, 2(2), 281-294.
  • Douai, A. (2009). International Broadcasting and The Management of Foreign Public Opinion, The Case of Al-Hurra Television in The “Arab Street”. Doktora tezi, The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania.
  • Ergüler, D. (2015). Akıllı Saatler Habercilik Dünyasını Nasıl Etkileyecek. Erişim: 18 Mayıs 2015, http://p24blog.org/yazarlar/901/akilli-saatler-habercilik-dunyasininasil-etkileyecek. Limbourg, P. (2014). Social Media–Chances and Challenges for International Broadcasting. Global-ICT, 12-13.
  • Norihiro, T. (2009). International Television Broadcasting in East Asia, Current Situation and Challenges. NHK Broadcasting Studies, 7, 21-53.
  • Ojomo, O. ve Olomojobi, O. (2012). International Broadcasting, National Security and the Public’s Right to Know. Benin Mediacom Journal, 5, 43-53.
  • O’Keeffe, A. ve Oliver A. (2010). International Broadcasting and Its Contribution to Public Diplomacy. Lowy Institute for International Policy.
  • Price, M. (2003). Public Diplomacy and the Transformation of International Broadcasting. Cardozo Arts and Entertainment Law Journal, 21(1), 51-85.
  • Price, M., Haas, S. ve Margolin, D. (2008). New Technologies and International Broadcasting: Reflections on Adaptations and Transformations. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 616(1), 150-172.
  • Ronalds, F. S. (1971). The Future of International Broadcasting. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 398, 71-80.
  • Powers, S. M. ve Youmans, W. (2012) A New Purpose for International Broadcasting, Subsidizing Deliberative Technologies in Non-transitioning States. Journal of Public Deliberation, 8(1), 1-14.
  • Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Erişim: 05 Eylül 2015, http://www.rferl.org/info/ mission/169.html.
  • Rawnsley, G. D. (2016). Introduction to “International Broadcasting and Public Diplomacy in the 21st Century”. Media and Communication, 4(2), 42-45.
  • Rawnsley, Garry D. (1996). Radio Diplomacy and Propaganda. The BBC and VOA in International Politics, 1956-64. Houndmills: Macmillan Press.
  • Rawnsley, G. D. (1999). The BBC External Services and the Hungarian Uprising,1956. G. D. Rawnsley (Ed.). Cold-War Propaganda in the 1950 (165-181). Houndmills: Macmillan Press.
  • Richter, C. (2008). International Broadcasting and Intercultural Dialogue: Deutsche Welle in the Arab World. Arab Media & Society, 6, 1-11.
  • Risso, L. (2013) Radio Wars: Broadcasting in the Cold War. Cold War History, 13(2), 145-152
  • Si, S. (2014). Expansion of International Broadcasting. The Growing Global Reach of China Central Television. Oxford: Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. The Edward R. Murrow Center of Public Diplomacy. Erişim: 01 Eylül 2015, http:// fletcher.tufts.edu/Murrow/Diplomacy.
  • United States Broadcasting Board of Governors. Erişim: 05 Eyül 2015. http://www. bbg.gov/wp-content/media/2012/01/BroadcastingAct.pdf.
  • Taylor, P. M. (2003). Munitions of the Mind. A History of Propaganda from The Ancient World to The Present Era. Manchester: Manchester University Press.
  • TRT World. Erişim: 15 Ekim 2018, https://www.trtworld.com.
  • Türkiye’nin Sesi Radyosu. Erişim: 15 Ekim 2018, http://www.turkiyeninsesiradyosu. com/ ?r=site/content&id=32
  • Weed, M. C. (2016). U.S. International Broadcasting, Background and Issues for Reform (R43521). Washington: Congressional Research Service.
  • Wood, J.(2008). History of International Broadcasting Volume 1. London: The Institution of Engineering and Technology.
  • Zöllner, O. (2011). International Broadcasting in the Social Network Era, New Allegiances in Deterritorialized Space Call for New Public Diplomacy. Erişim: 22 Haziran 2011, http://publicdiplomacymagazine.com/international-broadcasting-inthe-social-network-era-new-allegiances-in-deterritorialized-space-call-fornew-public-diplomacy/.
Toplam 34 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Derleme Makaleler
Yazarlar

Onur Bekiroğlu 0000-0002-4526-358X

Yayımlanma Tarihi 21 Ocak 2019
Gönderilme Tarihi 21 Ekim 2018
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2019

Kaynak Göster

APA Bekiroğlu, O. (2019). Propaganda, Kamu Diplomasisi ve Nesnellik Sarkacında Uluslararası Yayıncılık: Geçişkenlik Ekseninde Bir İşlevler Dizisi. Erciyes İletişim Dergisi, 6(1), 641-662. https://doi.org/10.17680/erciyesiletisim.473012