Avrupa Aşırı Sağının Yeni Çehresi: AB ve Ötesinde Göç Karşıtlığının Aracı Olarak Femo-Milliyetçilik

Öz

Avrupa aşırı sağı kıtanın pek çok noktasında göçmen krizleri, ekonomik faktörler, Ukrayna’daki savaş gibi farklı nedenlerden dolayı yükselişe geçmiştir. Bir zamanlar siyasi spektrumun uçlarında kendini göstermeye çalışan bu partiler pek çok ülkede seçimlerdeki başarıları ardından hükümette rol almaya ve hatta seçimi önde tamamlayarak koalisyon kurucu roller almaya başlamıştır. Bu makale, Avrupa ve ötesindeki aşırı sağ partilerin kadın liderlerinin ve sorumlularının, feminist ve queer unsurları milliyetçi söylemlerinde nasıl kullandıklarını inceleyerek, femo-milliyetçiliğin epistemik adaletsizliği arttırdığını ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. AB üyesi olan üç ülke ve AB adaylığı süregelen Türkiye’den örneklerle yapılan vaka analizleri üzerinden, bu söylemlerin hem medyada hem de siyasette nasıl yansıdığını açıklamayı hedeflemektedir. Bu çalışma, kimlik politikalarını feminizm bünyesinde eleştirerek, Avrupa’da aşırı sağ kanadın artan popülaritesi ile birlikte yükselişte olan femo-milliyetçilik ve homo-milliyetçilik üzerine gelecekte yapılacak araştırmalar için bir temel oluşturmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• femo-milliyetçilik
• popülizm
• aşırı-sağ
• göçmen karşıtı politikalar
• epistemik adaletsizlik

New Face of European Far-right: Femonationalism as a Tool for Anti-migration in EU and Beyond

Öz

The European far right has gained prominence in many countries due to factors such as migrant crises, economic challenges, and the war in Ukraine. Once on the political margins, these parties have begun playing key roles in governments and coalition-building after electoral successes. This article explores how female leaders and other political figures of far-right parties in Europe and beyond incorporate feminist and queer elements into their nationalist rhetoric, showcasing how femo-nationalism increases epistemic injustice. Through case studies from EU member states and Turkey, which is under EU accession process, it examines how these discourses are reflected in media and politics. By critiquing identity politics within feminism, the study lays the groundwork for future research on the growing influence of femo-nationalism and homo-nationalism amid the rise of far-right movements.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• emonationalism
• populism
• far-right
• anti-immigration policies
• epistemic injustice

Kaynakça

1. Armstrong, Kathryn, “Italy’s Meloni plays down G7 abortion law,” BBC, 15 Haziran 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c511x7j9j0eo (Son erişim tarihi: 16.09.2024)
2. A Union of Equality: Gender Equality Strategy 2020-2025. Avrupa Komisyonu. Strateji Raporu, 2020.
3. Bardella, Jordan, ‘‘Bardella: son appel aux "femmes de France", LCI, 19 Haziran 2024. Video, 10 dakika 26 saniye, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d4cH8QKfGMc
4. Beck, Koa. White Feminism: From the Suffragettes to Influencers and Who They Leave Behind. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2021)
5. Blasi, Giulia, “Giorgia Meloni e il femminismo di convenienza,” Valigia Blu, 6 Haziran 2024, https://www.valigiablu.it/meloni-de-luca-femminismo/ (Son erişim tarihi 18.08.2024)
6. Bolz, Lisa, “The instrumentalisation of feminism: When feminist goals become rightist”. CELSALEB, 26 Eylül 2023. https://celsalab.fr/2023/09/26/the-instrumentalisation-of-feminism-when-feminist-goals-become-rightist-paroles-futur2/
7. Budgeon, Shelley. “New Femininities and Feminist Subjectivities,” Third Wave Feminism and the Politics of Gender in Late Modernity. (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011): 49-76.
8. Chazan, Guy, “Openly gay leader seeks to soften image of Germany’s AfD,” Financial Times, 12 Mayıs 2017, https://www.ft.com/content/800bc828-357e-11e7-99bd-13beb0903fa3

9. Chiappa, Claduia, “Italian PM Meloni defends her partner’s controversial rape remarks,” Politico, 8 Eylül, 2023, https://www.politico.eu/article/italian-pm-giorgia-meloni-defends-her-partner-andrea-giambruno-controversial-rape-remarks/ (Son erişim tarihi 03.10.2024)
10. Chin, Rita. The Crisis of Multiculturalism in Europe; A History (Princeton University Press eBooks, 2017). https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400884902.
11. Chrisafis, Angelique, Kate Connolly, Angela Giuffrida, “From Le Pen to Alice Weidel: how the European far-right set its sights on women,” The Guardian, 29 Ocak 2019, https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2019/jan/29/from-le-pen-to-alice-weidel-how-the-european-far-right-set-its-sights-on-women
12. Cottais, Camille. “Feminisation and rise of the far-right in Europe: the case of France,” Generation for Rights Over the World (2022). growthinktank.org.
13. Crenshaw, Kimberle. “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory, and Antiracist Politics [1989].” (Routledge eBooks, 2018): 57–80. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429500480-5.
14. Dotson, Kristie. “Conceptualizing Epistemic Oppression.” Social Epistemology 28, no.2 (2014): 115–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2013.782585.
15. EU Motto | European Union. t.y. European Union. https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/symbols/eu-motto_en#:~:text=%22United%20in%20diversity%22%2C%20the,different%20cultures%2C%20traditions%20and%20languages (Son erişim tarihi: 06.11.2024)
16. Euractiv, “EU countries ranked for ‘influence potential.’’ 28 Haziran 2009. https://www.euractiv.com/section/future-eu/news/eu-countries-ranked-for-influence-potential/.
17. Fairclough, Norman. “Critical Discourse Analysis,” Int. Adv. Eng. Technol.. 7. (2001): 452-487.
18. Farris, Sara R. “Femonationalism and the ‘Regular’ Army of Labor Called Migrant Women.” History of the Present 2, no:2 (2012): 184–99. https://doi.org/10.5406/historypresent.2.2.0184.
19. Farris, Sara R. In the Name of Women’s Rights: The Rise of Femonationalism. (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 2017). http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv11sn2fp.
20. Farris, Sara R., “Les fondements politico-économiques du fémonationalisme,” Contretemps, 8 Aralık 2017b, https://www.contretemps.eu/les-fondements-politico-economiques-du-femonationalisme/
21. Farris, Sara R., “Giorgia Meloni is a female face for an Anti-Feminist agenda,” Jacobin, 19 Aralık 2022, https://jacobin.com/2022/12/giorgia-meloni-far-right-feminism-nationalism-family
22. Fricker, Miranda. Epistemic Injustice: Power and the Ethics of Knowing. (Oxford: Oxford Academic, 2007) https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198237907.001.0001
23. Gülbaş, Melisa, “Kayseri’de Sığınmacı Karşıtı Olaylar: 67 Kişi Gözaltına Alındı,” Aposto, 1 Temmuz 2024, https://aposto.com/s/kayseride-siginmaci-karsiti-protestolar-67-kisi-gozaltina
24. Hafez, Farid, “ From Anti-Semitism to Islamaphobia: The European Far Right’s Strategic Shift,” Discover Society, 1 Temmuz 2015, https://archive.discoversociety.org/2015/07/01/from-anti-semitism-to-islamophobia-the-european-far-rights-strategic-shift/ (Son erişilen tarih 12.09.2024)
25. Halhallı, Bekir, Avrupa Aşırı Sağı ve Büyük İkame Teorisi (Great Replacement), EUROPolitika, 25 Ocak 2023, https://www.europolitika.com/avrupa-asiri-sagi-ve-buyuk-ikame-teorisi-great-replacement/ (Son erişilen tarih 11.08.2024)
26. Hill, Marc L., host. “What is behind the rise of far-right in Europe?” Al Jazeera, UpFront, 31 Mayıs 2024. Video, 13 min., 37 secs. https://www.aljazeera.com/program/upfront/2024/5/31/whats-behind-the-rise-of-the-far-right-in-europe
27. Hill, Marc L., host. Femonationalism and the impact on women’s rights. Al Jazeera English, UpFront, 28 Ekim 2022. Video, 24 min., 50 sec.. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iUAx3XVkoRQ&t=606s
28. Indelicato, Maria E., Maíra Magalhães Lopes. “Understanding Populist Far-right Anti-immigration and Anti-gender Stances Beyond the Paradigm of Gender as ‘A Symbolic Glue’: Giorgia Meloni’s Modern Motherhood, neo-Catholicism, and Reproductive Racism.” European Journal of Women S Studies 31, no:2 (2024): 6-20. https://doi.org/10.1177/13505068241230819.
29. Kendall-Taylor, Andrea, Jim Townsend, hosts. The Resurgence of Europe’s Far-right. Episode 269. Brussels Sprouts, (Podcast). 53 mins, 25 secs. 12 Ocak, 2024 https://www.cnas.org/publications/podcast/the-resurgence-of-europes-far-right
30. Koca, Bayram, ve Selman Saç. 2023. “Korkuyu Politikleştirmek, Öfkeyi Örgütlemek: Fransa’da (Zemmour) ve Türkiye’de (Zafer Partisi) Aşırı Sağ.” Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi 79 (2): 325–50. https://doi.org/10.33630/ausbf.1203703.
31. Kundnani, Hans. Eurowhiteness: Culture, Empire and Race in the European Project. (Walton Street, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2023).
32. Kunz, Rahel, Julia Maisenbacher. Women in the neighbourhood: Reinstating the European Union’s civilising mission on the back of gender equality promotion? European Journal of International Relations 23, no.1 (2017): 122-144. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066115621120
33. Le Pen, Marine, Marine Le Pen : “Un référendum pour sortir de la crise migratoire,” l’Opinion, 13 Ocak 2016, https://www.lopinion.fr/politique/marine-le-pen-un-referendum-pour-sortir-de-la-crise-migratoire
34. Lugones, Maria. The Coloniality of Gender. The Palgrave Handbook of Gender and Development ed. Harcourt, Wendy (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2016): 13-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-137-38273-3_2
35. Loomba, Ania. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. (London: Routledge, 2007).
36. Medyascope, “Kayseride Başlayan Gerişim Suriye Kaynaklı Görüntülerle Başka İllere de Sıçradı,” 2 Temmuz 2024, https://medyascope.tv/2024/07/02/kayseride-baslayan-gerilim-suriye-kaynakli-goruntulerle-baska-illere-de-sicradi/
37. Meloni, Giorgina, “Address to the World Congress of Families XIII”, American Rhetoric, 30 Mart 2019. Video, 13 mins, 9 seconds. https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/giorgiameloniworldcongressoffamilies13.htm
38. Meloni, Giorgia, “Meloni Nel 2019: ‘Sono Giorgia, Sono Una Madre, Sono Cristiana.” Vista Agenzia Televisiva Nazionale. Youtube. 12 Nisan 2024. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Lh9AMSW_JM0
39. Möser, Cornelia. The Scandal of Women’s Emancipation. Femonationalism, Right-Wing Sexual Politics, and Anti-Feminism. Social Politics 29, no.4 (2022):1544-1565. ff10.1093/sp/jxac012ff. ffhal03892160f
40. Pascoletti, Matteo, “Women’s Trauma and Sexual Violence at the Centre of the Italian Electoral Campaign,” Media Diversity Institute, 20 Eylül 2022. https://www.media-diversity.org/womens-trauma-and-sexual-violence-at-the-centre-of-the-italian-electoral-campaign-%EF%BF%BC/
41. Peña-Guzmán, David M., and Joel Michael Reynolds. "The Harm of Ableism: Medical Error and Epistemic Injustice." Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 29, no. 3 (2019): 205-242. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/ken.2019.0023.
42. Poirier, Agnes, “France’s Marine Le Pen: The illusion of feminism,” Al Jazeera, 30 Nisan 2017, https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2017/4/30/frances-marine-le-pen-the-illusion-of-feminism (Son erişim tarihi 20.08.2024)
43. Roediger, David R. The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (Brooklyn, New York: Verso, 1999).
44. Said, Edward. W. Şarkiyatçılık: Batı’nın Şark Anlayışları, çev. Berna Ülner (Istanbul: Metis, 1999).
45. Schirm, Stefan A. “European Divergences: Germany, France, and Italy in Global Economic Governance.” In Springer eBooks, (2022): 337–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97154-0_13. Schirm, Stefan A. “European Divergences: Germany, France, and Italy in Global Economic Governance”, The Legacy and Impact of German Unification. New Perspectives in German Political Studies ed. Oswald Michael, John Robertson (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 1990): 337-356. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-97154-0_13
46. Sideris, Felicia, “Non, 75% des agressions sexuelles dans les transports ne sont pas le fait d’étrangers, contrairement à ce qu’affirme Eric Zemmour,” 10 Şubat 2022, https://www.tf1info.fr/societe/insecurite-non-75-des-agressions-sexuelles-dans-les-transports-ne-sont-pas-le-fait-d-etrangers-contrairement-a-ce-qu-affirme-eric-zemmour-2210494.html
47. Siddiqui, Sophia. Racing the nation: Towards a theory of reproductive racism. Race & Class 63, no.2 (2021): 3–20.
48. Sinha, Mrinalini. Colonial Masculinity: The ‘Manly Englishman’ and the ‘Effeminate Bengali’ in the Late Nineteenth Century. (Manchester and New York, NY: Manchester University Press, 1995).
49. Shields, James G. The Extreme Right in France: From Pétain to Le Pen. (London: Routledge, 2007).
50. Smith, Niki Seth, “What is ‘femonationalism’,” OpenDemocracy. 13 Temmuz 2017, https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/5050/what-is-femonationalism/
51. Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty. “Can the Subaltern Speak?,” Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory: A Reader ed. Patrick Williams, Laura Chrisman (London: Routledge, 1994): 66-111. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315656496
52. Sprengholz, Maximilian. “Post-feminist German heartland: On the women’s rights narrative of the radical-right populist party Alternative für Deutschland in the Bundestag.” European Journal of Women S Studies 28, no.4 (2021): 486–501. https://doi.org/10.1177/13505068211007509.
53. Süleymanoğlu-Kürüm, Rahime. “Uluslararası İlişkilerde Nitel Yöntemlerle Makale Yazımı: Vaka Analizi ve İncelikleri”, Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 2021 Sayı 42: Özel sayı 1 (2021): Ö149-Ö168.
54. Süleymanoğlu-Kürüm, Rahime, and Elif Gençkal-Eroler. “Alternative Modernities and Epistemic Struggles for Recognition in Turkish Media: Deconstructing Eurocentrism?” Third World Quarterly, 2023 44 (9): 2154–72. doi:10.1080/01436597.2023.2223125.
55. Taş, Mehmet. Avrupa’da Irkçılık. (İstanbul: İmge Kitapevi, 2021).
56. The Conversation, “Droits des femmes: Comment le RN, le NFP et Ensemble se positionnent-ils?,” 2 Temmuz, 2024, https://theconversation.com/droits-des-femmes-comment-le-rn-le-nfp-et-ensemble-se-positionnent-ils-233595
57. TİHV. 4 Ocak 2024 Günlük İnsan Hakları Raporu. Rapor, 2024. https://tihv.org.tr/gunluk-ih-raporlari/4-ocak-2024-gunluk-insan-haklari-raporu/
58. Öner, Selcen. “Avrupa’da Yükselen Aşırı Sağ, Yeni ‘Öteki’ler ve Türkiye’nin AB Üyeliği”. Ankara Avrupa Çalışmaları Dergisi 13, no.1 (2014): 163–184. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/847488
59. Layne, Rachel. “What the Rise of Far-Right Politics Says About the Economy in an Election Year.” HBS Working Knowledge. 21 May 2024. https://hbswk.hbs.edu/item/what-the-rise-of-far-right-politics-says-about-the-economy-in-an-election-year.
60. van der Vleuten, Anna. “Gender Mainstreaming in EU—SADC Relations: The Capabilities-Expectations Gap”. Global Power Europe – Vol.2. Global Power Shift ed. Boening, Astrid., Jan-Frederik. Kremer, Aukje van Loon (Berlin, Heidelberg:Springer, 2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32416-1_18
61. Vieten, Ulrike. M., Scott Poynting. Normalization of the Global Far Right: Pandemic Disruption? (Leeds: Emerald Publishing Limited, 2022).
62. Wildman, Sarah, “Marine Le Pen wants to protect France’s LGBTQ community — but opposes same-sex marriage,” Vox, 5 Mayıs 2017, https://www.vox.com/world/2017/5/5/15542242/marine-le-pen-french-elections-gay-outreach
63. Wildman, Sarah, “The German far right is faltering. They’re hoping a lesbian mom can reenergize the party.” Vox, 5 Temmuz 2017, https://www.vox.com/world/2017/7/5/15856998/germany-afd-alice-weidel-populist-lesbian-mom-far-right
64. Zafer Partisi. “Zafer Partisi Türk Kadınının tüm haklarının yanındadır. Prof. Dr. Ümit Özdağ, Zafer Partisi.” Youtube. 30 Mart 2023. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OzXmxCvde9Q
65. Zafer Partisi. Zafer Partisi Parti Programı. Parti Programı, 2021. https://zaferpartisi.org.tr/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/PARTI-PROGRAMI.pdf