A Comparative Analysis of Women's Representation in Parliaments in the Context of Democracy

Öz

This study investigates the relationship between women's representation in parliaments and democratization processes, aiming to identify the key factors influencing women's political participation in different democratic contexts. The analysis focuses on variables such as levels of democracy, the duration of democratic experience, economic development, electoral systems, gender quotas, and government systems, based on data from 142 countries between 2000 and 2020. Three models were employed in the study: the first model includes all countries, the second focuses on countries with high levels of democracy, and the third examines countries with low levels of democracy. To assess the effects of these variables on women's representation, the study employs Ordinary Least Squares (OLS), Robust OLS, and Maximum Likelihood Estimation (MLE) methods using STATA software. The findings reveal no statistically significant relationship between women's parliamentary representation and a country's level of democracy, economic development, or government system. However, a positive and significant relationship between gender quotas and women's representation is observed in both Model 1 and Model 3. Additionally, proportional representation electoral systems demonstrate a notable effect on women's representation in Model 1 and Model 2. These results indicate that democratization alone is insufficient to achieve gender equality in political representation, but institutional arrangements, such as gender quotas and electoral systems, play a crucial role in promoting women's parliamentary representation. This study provides empirical findings on the interactions between gender representation and democracy, contributing significantly to the existing literature. Furthermore, it offers valuable insights for policymakers aiming to strengthen women's roles in political decision-making processes.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Women
• Democracy
• Gender Quotas
• Electoral Systems
• Political Participation

Demokrasi Bağlamında Parlamentolardaki Kadın Temsilinin Karşılaştırmalı Bir Analizi

Öz

Bu çalışma, kadınların parlamentolardaki temsiliyeti ile demokratikleşme süreçleri arasındaki ilişkiyi araştırmakta ve farklı demokratik bağlamlarda kadınların siyasi katılımını etkileyen başlıca faktörleri tespit etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Analiz, 2000-2020 yılları arasında 142 ülkeden elde edilen verilere dayanarak, demokrasi seviyeleri, demokrasi deneyiminin uzunluğu, ekonomik gelişmişlik, seçim sistemleri, cinsiyet kotaları ve hükümet sistemleri gibi değişkenler üzerine odaklanmaktadır. Araştırma kapsamında üç model kullanılmıştır: Birinci model tüm ülkeleri kapsamına alırken, ikinci model yüksek demokrasi seviyesine sahip ülkelere, üçüncü model ise düşük demokrasi seviyesindeki ülkelere odaklanmaktadır. Çalışma, bu değişkenlerin kadın temsiliyeti üzerindeki etkisini değerlendirmek amacıyla STATA yazılımı kullanılarak Sıradan En Küçük Kareler (OLS), Robust OLS ve Maksimum Olabilirlik Tahmini (MLE) yöntemleriyle analiz edilmiştir. Bulgular, kadınların parlamentolardaki temsiliyeti ile ülkenin demokrasi düzeyi, ekonomik gelişmişliği ya da hükümet sistemi arasında istatistiksel olarak anlamlı bir ilişki bulunmadığını ortaya koymaktadır. Bununla birlikte, cinsiyet kotası uygulayan ülkelerde hem Model 1 hem de Model 3'te kadın temsili ile pozitif yönlü anlamlı bir ilişki tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca, nispi temsil seçim sistemlerinin, Model 1 ve Model 2'de kadın temsiliyeti üzerinde kayda değer bir etki yarattığı görülmektedir. Bu sonuçlar, demokratikleşmenin tek başına siyasal temsilde toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğini sağlama noktasında yeterli olmadığını, ancak cinsiyet kotası ve seçim sistemleri gibi kurumsal düzenlemelerin kadınların parlamentolarda temsiliyetini teşvik etmede önemli bir rol oynadığını göstermektedir. Bu çalışma, toplumsal cinsiyet temsili ile demokrasi arasındaki etkileşimlere ilişkin ampirik bulgular sunarak, mevcut literatüre önemli bir katkı sağlamaktadır. Ayrıca, kadınların siyasal karar alma süreçlerindeki rollerini güçlendirmeyi hedefleyen politika yapıcılar için değerli içgörüler sunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Kadın Temsili
• Demokrasi
• Cinsiyet Kotaları
• Seçim Sistemleri
• Siyasi Katılım

Kaynakça

1. Alexander, D., & Andersen, K. (1993). Gender as a factor in the attribution of leadership traits. Political Research Quarterly, 46(3), 527-545. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299304600305
2. Amalia, L. S., Budiatri, A. P., Sweinstani, M. KD., Kusumaningtyas, A. N., & Ekawati, E. (2021). Simultaneous elections and the rise of female representation in Indonesia. Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs, 40(1), 50-72. https://doi.org/10.1177/1868103421989716
3. Anzia, S., & Berry, C. (2011). The Jackie (and Jill) Robinson effect: Why do congresswomen outperform congressmen?. American Journal of Political Science, 55(3), 478-493. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1013443
4. Atabey, G., & Hasta, D. (2018). Siyasal katılım, siyasal yeterlik ve toplumsal cinsiyet. Nesne Psikoloji Dergisi, 6(13), 484-516. DOI: 10.7816/nesne-06-13-10
5. Baldez, L. (2004). Elected bodies: The gender quota law for legislative candidates in Mexico. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 29, 231-258. https://doi.org/10.3162/036298004X201168
6. Barnes, T. D. (2012). Gender and legislative preferences: Evidence from the Argentine provinces. Politics & Gender, 8(4), 483-507. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X12000505
7. Beckwith, K., & Cowell-Meyers, K. (2007). Sheer numbers: Critical representation thresholds and women’s political representation. Perspectives on Politics, 5(3), 553-565. https://doi.org/10.1017/S153759270707154X
8. Bell, L. C., & Rosenthal, C. S. (2003). From passive to active representation: The case of women congressional staff. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 13(1), 65-81. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/mug008

9. Belsley, D. A., Kuh, E., & Welsch, R. E. (1980). Regression diagnostics: Identifying influential data and sources of collinearity. John Wiley & Sons.
10. Bratton, K. A., & Haynie, K. L. (1999). Agenda setting and legislative success in state legislatures: The effects of gender and race. The Journal of Politics, 61(3), 658-679. https://doi.org/10.2307/2647822
11. Bush, S. S. (2011). International politics and the spread of quotas for women in legislatures. International Organization, 65(1), 103-137. https://doi.org/10.10170S0020818310000287
12. Campbell, R., Childs, S., & Lovenduski, J. (2009). Do women need women representatives?. British Journal of Political Science, 40(1), 171-194. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123409990408
13. Caprioli, M., & Boyer, M. A. (2001). Gender, violence, and international crisis. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 45(4), 503-518. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022002701045004005
14. Caul, M. (1999). Women’s representation in parliament: The role of political parties. Party Politics, 5(1), 79-98. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068899005001005
15. Celis, K. (2008). Gendering representation. G. Goertz & A. G. Mazur (Ed.), Politics, gender, and concepts theory and methodology (71-93). Cambridge University Press.
16. Chafetz, J. S., & Dworkin, A. G. (1987). In the face of threat: Organized antifeminism in comparative perspective. Gender and Society, 1(1), 33-60. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124387001001003
17. Chaney, P. (2016). Gendered political space: Civil society, contingency theory, and the substantive representation of women. Journal of Civil Society, 12(2), 198-223. https://doi.org/10.1080/17448689.2016.1178964
18. Chattopadhyay, R., & Duflo, E. (2004). Women as policy makers: Evidence from a randomized policy experiment in India. Econometrica, 72(5), 1409-1443. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0262.2004.00539.x
19. Childs, S., & Lovenduski, J. (2013). Political representation. G. Waylen, K. Celis, J. Kantola, & S. L. Weldon (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of gender and politics (pp. 489-513). Oxford University Press.
20. Curtin, J. (2008). Women, political leadership and substantive representation: The case of New Zealand. Parliamentary Affairs, 61(3), 490-504. https://doi.org/10.1093/pa/gsn014
21. Dahlerup, D. (2007). Electoral gender quotas: Between equality of opportunity and equality of result. Representation, 43(2), 73-92. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890701363227
22. Dahlerup, D., & Freidenvall, L. (2005). Quotas as a “fast track” to equal representation for women: Why Scandinavia is no longer the model. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 7(1), 26-48. https://doi.org/10.1080/1461674042000324673
23. Dassonneville, R., & McAllister, I. (2018). Gender, political knowledge, and descriptive representation: The impact of long-term socialization. American Journal of Political Science, 62(2), 249-265. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12353
24. Değirmenci, N. (2022). Türkiye'de kadının siyasal temsil sorunu üzerine bir inceleme. Fenerbahçe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 2(2), 409-430
25. Demir, S. (2015). Kadınların siyasete katılımı ve katılımı artırmaya yönelik stratejiler. KADEM Kadın Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(2), 35-39.
26. Demirci, M. R. (2023). Demokrasilerde kadın temsilinin yetersizliği: kimlik ve katılım sorunlarına feminist bir bakış. H. Altıntaş, M. Mete & N. Bolat Bozaslan (Ed.), Sosyal ve beşerî bilimlerde uluslararası teori, araştırma ve derlemeler 3 (21-50). Serüven Yayınevi
27. Demirci, M. R. (2024). Cinsiyet kotalarının kadınların siyasal temsili ve katılımı üzerindeki etkisi. S. Batal (Ed.), Siyaset bilimi, uluslararası ilişkiler ve kamu yönetimi alanında uluslararası araştırma ve değerlendirmeler (219-238). Serüven Yayınevi.
28. DiRienzo, C. E., & Das, J. (2019). Women in government, environment, and corruption. Environmental Development, 30, 103-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2019.04.006
29. Eagly, A. H., Johannesen-Schmidt, M. C., & van Engen, M. L. (2003). Transformational, transactional, and laissez-faire leadership styles: A meta-analysis comparing women and men. Psychological Bulletin, 129(4), 569-591. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.4.569
30. Ergas, C., & York, R. (2012). Women’s status and carbon dioxide emissions: A quantitative cross-national analysis. Social Science Research, 41(4), 965-976. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.03.008
31. Erzeel, S., & Celis, K. (2016). Political parties, ideology and the substantive representation of women. Party Politics, 22(5), 576-586. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068816655561
32. Fox, J. (2020). Regression diagnostics: An introduction. Sage.
33. Fredriksson, P. G., & Wang, L. (2011). Sex and environmental policy in the U.S. House of Representatives. Economics Letters, 113, 228-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econlet.2011.07.019
34. Freedom House. (n.d.). Demokrasi Endeksi. https://freedomhouse.org/reports/publication-archives (Erişim Tarihi: 17.12.2023)
35. Gorska, A. (2016). Gender differences in leadership. Studia i Materiały, 1(20), 136-144. https://doi.org/10.7172/1733-9758.2016.20.10
36. Gwiazda, A. (2021). Analysing the “what” and “when” of women’s substantive representation: The role of right-wing populist party ideology. East European Politics, 37(4), 681-701. https://doi.org/10.1080/21599165.2021.1873775
37. Habermas, J. (1996). Between facts and norms: Contributions to a discourse theory of law and democracy. (Çev. Willam R.). Polity Press.
38. Hughes, M. M. (2011). Intersectionality, quotas, and minority women’s political representation worldwide. The American Political Science Review, 105(3), 604-620. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055411000293
39. Hunter, L. M., et al. (2004). Cross-national gender variation in environmental behaviors. Social Science Quarterly, 85(3), 677-694. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.00239.x
40. Htun, M., & Power, T. J. (2006). Gender, parties, and the support for equal rights in the Brazilian Congress. Latin American Politics and Society, 48(4), 83-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2006.tb00366.x
41. Inglehart, R., et al. (2002). Gender equality and democracy. Comparative Sociology, 1(3-4), 321-345. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047404361_007
42. Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2003). Rising tide: Gender equality and cultural change around the world. Cambridge University Press.
43. İnsani Gelişim Endeksi. (n.d.). United Nations Development Programme. https://hdr-undp-org.translate.goog/data-center/documentation-and-downloads?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=tr&_x_tr_hl=tr&_x_tr_pto=sc (Erişim Tarihi: 22.11.2023)
44. Jagnani, M., & Mahadevan, M. (2023). Do women leaders improve environmental outcomes? Evidence from crop fires in India. Ideas for India. https://www.ideasforindia.in/topics/environment/do-women-leaders-improve-environmental-outcomes-evidence-from-crop-fires-in-india.html
45. Karam, A. (2000). Women in war and peace-building: The roads traversed, the challenges ahead. International Feminist Journal of Politics, 3(1), 2-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616740010019820
46. Kenworthy, L., & Malami, M. (1999). Gender inequality in political representation: A worldwide comparative analysis. Social Forces, 78(1), 235-269. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/78.1.235
47. Keser, A., Çelik, M., & Ercan, E. (2021). Türkiye'de kadınların siyasal temsili ve toplumsal cinsiyet. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 76(1), 191-229. https://doi.org/10.33630/ausbf.822019
48. Kittilson, M. C. (2006). Challenging parties, changing parliaments: Women and elected office in contemporary Western Europe. Ohio State University Press.
49. Krause, J., Krause, W., & Bränfors, P. (2018). Women’s participation in peace negotiations and the durability of peace. International Interactions, 44(6), 985-1016. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050629.2018.1492386
50. Krook, M. L. (2009). Quotas for women in politics: Gender and candidate selection reform worldwide. Oxford University Press.
51. Krook, M. L. (2018). Electoral systems and women’s representation. E. S. Herron, R. J. Pekkanen & M. S. Shugart (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of electoral systems (175-192). Oxford University Press.
52. Krook, M. L., & Mackay, F. (Ed.). (2011). Gender, politics and institutions: Towards a feminist institutionalism. Palgrave Macmillan.
53. Kunovich, S., & Paxton, P. (2005). Pathways to power: The role of political parties in women’s national political representation. American Journal of Sociology, 111(2), 505-552. https://doi.org/10.1086/444445
54. Lawless, J. L. (2015). Female candidates and legislators. Annual Review of Political Science, 18, 349–366. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-020614-094613
55. Little, T. H., Dunn, D., & Deen, R. E. (2001). A view from the top: Gender differences in legislative priorities among state legislative leaders. Women and Politics, 22(4), 29-49. https://doi.org/10.1300/J014v22n04_02
56. Lovenduski, J. (2005). Feminizing politics. Polity Press
57. Lv, Z., & Deng, C. (2019). Does women’s political empowerment matter for improving the environment? A heterogeneous dynamic panel analysis. Sustainable Development, 27, 603-612. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.1926
58. Matland, R. E. (1998). Women’s representation in national legislatures: Developed and developing countries. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 23(1), 107-129. https://doi.org/10.2307/440217
59. Mavisakalyan, A., & Tarverdi, Y. (2019). Gender and climate change: Do female parliamentarians make difference? European Journal of Political Economy, 56, 151-164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2018.08.001
60. McCright, A. M. (2010). The effects of gender on climate change knowledge and concern in the American public. Population and Environment, 32, 66-87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-010-0113-1
61. McDonagh, E. (2010). It takes a state: A policy feedback model of women’s political representation. Perspectives on Politics, 8(1), 69-91. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592709992672
62. McGee, J. A., Greiner, P. T., Christensen, M., Ergas, C., & Clement, M. T. (2020). Gender inequality, reproductive justice, and decoupling economic growth and emissions: A panel analysis of the moderating association of gender equality on the relationship between economic growth and CO₂ emissions. Environmental Sociology, 6(3), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/23251042.2020.1736364
63. Mechkova, V., & Carlitz, R. (2021). Gendered accountability: When and why do women’s policy priorities get implemented? European Political Science Review, 13, 3-21. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1755773920000272
64. Mechkova, V., Dahlum, S., & Petrarca, C. S. (2022). Women’s political representation, good governance and human development. Governance, 37(1), 19-38. https://doi.org/10.1111/gove.12742
65. Melander, E. (2005). Gender equality and intrastate armed conflict. International Studies Quarterly, 49(4), 695-714. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2005.00384.x
66. Mendelberg, T., Karpowitz, C.F. and Goedert, N. (2014). Does descriptive representation facilitate women’s distinctive voice? How gender composition and decision rules affect deliberation. American Journal of Political Science, 58(2), 291-306. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12077
67. Mirziyoyeva, Z., & Salahodjaev, R. (2022). Women’s parliamentary representation and sustainable development goals: A cross-country evidence. Applied Research in Quality of Life, 17, 871-883. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11482-021-09940-8
68. Mouffe, C. (2005). On the political. Routledge.
69. Muyinudeen, B. M. H., & Elsadig, M. A. (2008). Gender differences in decision-making styles of Malaysian managers. European Journal of Scientific Research, 19(3), 405-415.
70. Nechemias, C. (1994). Democratization and women’s access to legislative seats: The Soviet case, 1989–1991. Women & Politics, 14(3), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1300/J014v14n03_01
71. Norgaard, K., & York, R. (2005). Gender equality and state environmentalism. Gender and Society, 19(4), 506-522. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243204273612
72. Norris, P. (2004). Electoral engineering: Voting rules and political behavior. Cambridge University Press.
73. Nugent, C., & Shandra, J. M. (2009). State environmental protection efforts, women’s status, and world polity. Organization & Environment, 22(2), 208-229. https://doi.org/10.1177/1086026609338166
74. Osborn, T. (2014). Women state legislators and representation: The role of political parties and institutions. State & Local Government Review, 46(2), 146-155. https://doi.org/10.1177/0160323X14542441
75. Paffenholz, T. (2016). Making women count not just counting women: Assessing women’s inclusion and influence on peace negotiations. UN Women.
76. Parlamentolar Arası Birlik Veritabanı. (n.d.). Inter-Parliamentary Union. https://data.ipu.org/compare/ (Erişim Tarihi: 17.01.2024)
77. Pateman, C. (2018). The sexual contract. Polity Press.
78. Paxton, P. (1997). Women in national legislatures: A cross-national analysis. Social Science Research, 26, 442-464. https://doi.org/10.1006/ssre.1997.0603
79. Paxton, P., & Hughes, M. M. (2017). Women, politics and power. SAGE Publications.
80. Paxton, P., & Kunovich, S. (2003). Women’s political representation: The importance of ideology. Social Forces, 82(1), 87-113. https://doi.org/10.1353/sof.2003.0105
81. Phillips, A. (1991). Engendering democracy. Polity Press.
82. Pikramenou, N., & Mahajan, S. (2019). Make every African woman leader count. Agenda, 33(1), 82-96. https://doi.org/10.1080/10130950.2019.1605835
83. Porter, E. (2003). Women, political decision-making, and peacebuilding. Global Change, Peace & Security, 15(3), 245-262. https://doi.org/10.1080/0951274032000124965
84. Ramstetter, L., & Habersack, F. (2019). Do women make a difference? Analyzing environmental attitudes and actions of members of the European Parliament. Environmental Politics, 29(6), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2019.1609156
85. Regulska, J. (1992). Women and power in Poland: Hopes or reality. In J. Bystydzienski (Ed.), Women transforming politics: Worldwide strategies for empowerment (pp. 175-191). Indiana University Press.
86. Reingold, B. (1992). Concepts of representation among female and male state legislators. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 17(4), 509-537. https://doi.org/10.2307/439864
87. Reynolds, A. (1999). Women in the legislatures and executives of the world: Knocking at the highest glass ceiling. World Politics, 51(4), 547-572. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0043887100009254
88. Salahodjaev, R., & Jarilkapova, D. (2020). Women in parliament and deforestation: Cross-country evidence. Journal for Nature Conservation, 55, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2020.125830
89. Salamon, H. (2024). The “women’s representation-corruption link” and environmentalism: A cross-national study. Political Studies, 0, 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/00323217231224964
90. Sanbonmatsu, K. (2002). Gender stereotypes and vote choice. American Journal of Political Science, 46(1), 20-34. https://doi.org/10.2307/3088412
91. Sanbonmatsu, K. (2003). Gender-related political knowledge and the descriptive representation of women. Political Behavior, 25(4), 367-388. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:POBE.0000004063.83917.2d
92. Schmidt, G. D. (2008). The election of women in list PR systems: Testing the conventional wisdom. Electoral Studies, 28, 190-203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2008.08.002
93. Schwindt-Bayer, L. A. (2006). Still supermadres? Gender and the policy priorities of Latin American legislators. American Journal of Political Science, 50(3), 570-585. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00202.x
94. Schwindt-Bayer, L. A., & Mishler, W. (2005). An integrated model of women’s representation. The Journal of Politics, 67(2), 407-428. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2005.00323.x
95. Semenza, J.C., Ploubidis, G.B. & George, L.A. (2011). Climate change and climate variability: Personal motivation for adaptation and mitigation. Environmental Health, 10(46), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-10-46
96. Shanmugam, M., Amaratunga, R. D. G., & Haigh, R. P. (2007). Leadership styles: Gender similarities, differences and perceptions. 7th International Postgraduate Research Conference in the Built and Human Environment (99-113).
97. Skjeie, H. (1991). The rhetoric of difference: On women’s inclusion into political elites. Politics and Society, 19(2), 233-263. https://doi.org/10.1177/003232929101900205
98. Smith, A. R., Reingold, B., & Owens, M. L. (2012). The political determinants of women’s descriptive representation in cities. Political Research Quarterly, 65(2), 315-329. https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912910395327
99. Stockemer, D. (2011). Women’s parliamentary representation in Africa: The impact of democracy and corruption on the number of female deputies in national parliaments. Political Studies, 59, 693-712. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2011.00897.x
100. Stockemer, D. (2015). Women’s descriptive representation in developed and developing countries. International Political Science Review, 36(4), 393-408. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512113513966
101. Sumbas, A. (2015). Kadının Politik Temsil Meselesi Üzerine Bir Tartışma. İ.Ü. Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, 53, 103-121.
102. Swers, M. L. (1998). Are women more likely to vote for women’s issue bills than their male colleagues?. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 23(3), 435-448. https://doi.org/10.2307/440362
103. Swers, M. L. (2005). Connecting descriptive and substantive representation: An analysis of sex differences in cosponsorship activity. Legislative Studies Quarterly, 30(3), 407-433. https://doi.org/10.3162/036298005X201617
104. Svaleryd, H. (2009). Women’s representation and public spending. European Journal of Political Economy, 25(2), 186-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2008.12.004
105. Şahin M. vd. (2024). Kadınların siyasal temsilde yaşadıkları sorunlar ve engeller üzerine nitel bir araştırma. Politik Ekonomik Kuram, 8(2), 402-424. https://doi.org/10.30586/pek.147 1262
106. Thomas, S. (1991). The impact of women on state legislative priorities. Journal of Politics, 53(4), 958-976. https://doi.org/10.2307/2131862
107. Thomas, S., & Welch, S. (1991). The impact of gender on activities and priorities of state legislators. The Western Political Quarterly, 44(2), 445-456. https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299104400212
108. Tranter, B. (2011). Political divisions over climate change and environmental issues in Australia. Environmental Politics, 20(1), 78-96. https://doi.org/10.1080/09644016.2011.538167
109. Tremblay, M. (2007). Democracy, representation, and women: A comparative analysis. Democratization, 14(4), 533-553. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510340701398261
110. Tremblay, M., & Pelletier, R. (2000). More feminists or more women? Descriptive and substantive representations of women in the 1997 Canadian federal elections. International Political Science Review, 21(4), 381-405. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512100214004
111. Tripp, A. M. (2000). Women and politics in Uganda. The University of Wisconsin Press.
112. Tripp, A. M., & Kang, A. (2008). The global impact of quotas: On the fast track to increased female legislative representation. Comparative Political Studies, 41(3), 338–361. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414006297342
113. Volden, C., Wiseman, A. E., & Wittmer, D. E. (2018). Women’s issues and their fates in the US Congress. Political Science Research and Methods, 6(4), 679-696. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2016.32
114. Wängnerud, L. (2009). Women in parliaments: Descriptive and substantive representation. Annual Review of Political Science, 12, 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.11.053106.123839
115. Wängnerud, L. (2000). Testing the politics of presence: Women’s representation in the Swedish Riksdag. Scandinavian Political Studies, 23(1), 67-91. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9477.00031
116. Waylen, G. (2006). Constitutional engineering: What opportunities for the enhancement of gender rights?. Third World Quarterly, 27(7), 1209-1221. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436590600933305
117. Waylen, G. (2017). Gender and informal institutions. Rowman & Littlefield.
118. Weber, E.U., Blais, A.-R., & Betz, N.E. (2002). A domain specific risk-attitude scale: Measuring risk perceptions and risk behaviors. Journal of Behavioral Decision Making, 15, 263-269. https://doi.org/10.1002/bdm.414
119. Weldon, S. L. (2002). Beyond bodies: Institutional sources of representation for women in democratic policymaking. The Journal of Politics, 64(4), 1153-1174. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2508.00167
120. Wing, D. A., Benner, R. S., Petersen, R., Newcomb, R, & Scott, J. R. (2010). Differences in editorial board reviewer behavior based on gender. Journal of Women’s Health, 19(10), 1919-1923. https://doi.org/10.1089/jwh.2009.1904
121. Yalçın, K. (2023). Parlamento seçimlerinde zorunlu cinsiyet kotası uygulamasının temsili demokrasiye etkileri. Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 5(2), 829-858. https://doi.org/10.59933/tauhfd.1411616