Investigation of Athletes' Superstitious Beliefs, Trait and State Anxiety Levels in Terms of Team and Individual Sports

Abstract

Research has revealed chiefly that anxiety harms sports performance. However, the processes underlying the detrimental effects of anxiety on sports performance have not yet been sufficiently investigated. This study examines the effects of superstitious behaviors and sport type on state and trait anxiety levels. A total of 236 male athletes competing in inter-university competitions participated in the study. Personal Information Form, Superstitious Belief Scale in Sports, and State-Trait and Trait Anxiety Scale were used as data collection tools. Stepwise regression analysis was applied to determine the extent to which independent variables predict state and trait anxiety levels. The results revealed that superstitious behaviors such as behaviors used before games and competitions, praying, and using lucky objects were significant predictors of anxiety levels.

Keywords

• ritüel
• kaygı
• performans
• psikolojik beceri

Sporcuların Batıl İnanç, Sürekli ve Durumluk Kaygı Düzeylerinin Takım ve Bireysel Sporlar Açısından İncelenmesi

Öz

Yapılan araştırmalar çoğunlukla kaygının spor performansı üzerinde olumsuz bir etkisi olduğunu ortaya koymuştur. Ancak, kaygının spor performansı üzerindeki zararlı etkilerinin altında yatan süreçler henüz yeterince araştırılmamıştır. Bu kapsamda araştırmanın amacı sporcuların kullanmış oldukları batıl inanç davranışlarının ve spor türünün durumluk ve sürekli kaygı düzeyleri üzerindeki etkisinin incelenmesidir. Araştırmaya üniversiteler arası müsabakalarda mücadele eden 236 erkek sporcu katılmıştır. Araştırmada veri toplama aracı olarak Kişisel Bilgi Formu, Sporda Batıl İnanç Ölçeği ve Sürekli ve Durumluk Kaygı Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Bağımsız değişkenlerin durumluk ve sürekli kaygı düzeylerinin ne ölçüde yordayıcısı olduğunu belirlemek için aşamalı regresyon (stepwise) analizi uygulanmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlar oyun ve karşılaşma öncesi kullanılan davranışlar, dua etme ve uğurlu nesneler kullanma gibi batıl inanç davranışlarının kaygı düzeylerinin önemli yordayıcıları olduğunu ortaya koymuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• ritüel
• kaygı
• performans
• psikolojik beceri

Kaynakça

1. Barut, A. İ. (2008). Sporda batıl davranış ve öz-yeterlik ilişkisi. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Mersin Üniversitesi.
2. Basiaga-Pasternak, J. (2019). Pre-performance rituals and anxiety among young Polish and Ukrainian football players. Baltic J Heal Phys Activity, 11(4), 69-76.
3. Bleak, J. L., & Frederick, C. M. (1998). Supersititious behavior in sport: Levels of effectiveness and determinants of use in three collegiate sports. Journal of Sport Behavior, 21(1), 1.
4. Boone, E. M., & Leadbeater, B. J. (2006). Game on: Diminishing risks for depressive symptoms in early adolescence through positive involvement in team sports. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 16(1), 79-90.
5. Buhrmann, H. G., & Zaugg, M. K. (1981). Superstitions among basketball players: An investigation of various forms of superstitious beliefs and behavior among competitive basketballers at the junior high school to university level. Journal of Sport Behavior, 4(4), 163–174.
6. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç-Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2022). Eğitimde Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Pegem Akademi.
7. Concordian. (2012). A look at pre-game rituals and superstitions from your stingers. Retrieved 15.06.2015 from http://theconcordian.com/2012/10/a-look-at-pre-game-rituals-and-superstitions-from-your-stingers/
8. Damisch, L., Stoberock, B., & Mussweiler, T. (2010). Keep Your Fingers Crossed! How Superstition Improves Performance. Psychological Science, 21(7), 1014-1020.

9. Delacroix, E., & Valérie, G. (2008). Understanding, defining and measuring the trait of superstition. Selected Proceedings of the IAREP/SABE, LUISS in Rome.
10. Domotor, Z., Ruiz-Barquin, R., & Szabo, A. (2016). Superstitious behavior in sport: A literature review. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 57(4), 368-382.
11. Eime, R. M., Young, J. A., Harvey, J. T., Charity, M. J., & Payne, W. R. (2013). A systematic review of the psychological and social benefits of participation in sport for children and adolescents: informing development of a conceptual model of health through sport. International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity, 10.
12. Hanin, Y. L. (2000). Emotions in sport. Human Kinetics.
13. Hanrahan, S. J., & Cerin, E. (2009). Gender, level of participation, and type of sport: Differences in achievement goal orientation and attributional style. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport, 12(4), 508-512.
14. İstmer. (2022). Aşamalı regresyon analizi. İstatistik Merkezi. Retrieved 15.01.2023 from https://www.istmer.com/asamali-regresyon-analizi-neden-kullanilir
15. Janelle, C. M. (2002). Anxiety, arousal and visual attention: A mechanistic account of performance variability. Journal of Sports Sciences, 20, 237–251.
16. Jordet, G. (2009). Why do English players fail in soccer penalty shootouts? A study of team status, self-regulation, and choking under pressure. Journal of Sports Sciences, 27, 97–106.
17. Kajbafnezhad, H., Ahadi, H., Heidarie, A. R., Askari, P., & Enayati, M. (2011). Difference between team and individual sports with respect to psychological skills, overall emotional intelligence and athletic success motivation in Shiraz city athletes. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 11(3), 249. https://efsupit.ro/images/stories/imgs/JPES/2011/9/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Art%2039.pdf Kleine, D. (1990). Anxiety and sport performance: A meta-analysis. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 2, 113–131.
18. Köroğlu, E., & Aydemir, Ö. (2000). Psikiyatride kullanılan klinik ölçekler. Hekimler Yayın Birliği.
19. Miller, K. E., Barnes, G. M., Melnick, M. J., Sabo, D. F., & Farrell, M. P. (2002). Gender and racial/ethnic differences in predicting adolescent sexual risk: Athletic participation versus exercise. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 43(4), 436-450. https://doi.org/10.2307/3090236
20. Miller, K. E., & Hoffman, J. H. (2009). Mental Well-Being and Sport-Related Identities in College Students. Sociology of Sport Journal, 26(2), 335-356. https://doi.org/10.1123/ssj.26.2.335
21. Newkey-Burden, C. (2014, November 5). 10 sportsmen and their strange superstitions. The Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/men/the-filter/11208062/10-sportsmen-and-their-strange-superstitions.html
22. Nieuwenhuys, A., Pijpers, J. R., Oudejans, R. R. D., & Bakker, F. C. (2008). The influence of anxiety on visual attention in climbing. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 30, 171–185. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.30.2.171
23. Nixdorf, I., Frank, R., & Beckmann, J. (2016). Comparison of Athletes' Proneness to Depressive Symptoms in Individual and Team Sports: Research on Psychological Mediators in Junior Elite Athletes. Frontier in Psychology, 7, 893.
24. Ofori, P. K., Biddle, S., & Lavallee, D. (2013). The role of superstition among professional footballers in Ghana. Athletic Insight, 14(2), 117-127. https://rke.abertay.ac.uk/en/publications/the-role-of-superstition-among-professional-footballers-in-ghana
25. Öner, N., & Le Compte, A. (1983). Süreksiz Durumluk/Sürekli Anksiyete Envanteri El Kitabı, 1. BaskI, İstanbul, Boğaziçi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 1-26.
26. Pedersen, M. T., Vorup, J., Nistrup, A., Wikman, J. M., Alstrom, J. M., Melcher, P. S., Pfister, G. U., & Bangsbo, J. (2017). Effect of team sports and resistance training on physical function,quality of life, and motivation in older adults. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 27(8), 852-864.
27. Pijpers, J. R., Oudejans, R. R. D., Bakker, F. C., & Beek, P. J. (2006). The role of anxiety in perceiving and realizing affordances. Ecological Psychology, 18, 131–161.
28. Pluhar, E., McCracken, C., Griffith, K. L., Christino, M. A., Sugimoto, D., & Meehan, W. P. (2019). Team Sport Athletes May Be Less Likely To Suffer Anxiety or Depression than Individual Sport Athletes. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 18(3), 490-496.
29. Ptacek, T. J. (2016). The relationship between superstition and confidence in sport [Unpublished master’s thesis]. The University of North Dakota.
30. Sabiston, C. M., Jewett, R., Ashdown-Franks, G., Belanger, M., Brunet, J., O'Loughlin, E., & O'Loughlin, J. (2016). Number of Years of Team and Individual Sport Participation During Adolescence and Depressive Symptoms in Early Adulthood. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 38(1), 105-110.
31. Schippers, M. C., & Van Lange, P. A. M. (2006). The psychological benefits of superstitious rituals in top sport: A study among top sportspersons. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(10), 2532-2553.
32. Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., & Barnett, N. P. (1995). Reduction of children's sport performance anxiety through social support and stress-reduction training for coaches. Journal of applied developmental psychology, 16(1), 125-142.
33. Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., Lushene, R., Vagg, P. R., & Jacobs, G. A. (1983). Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Consulting Psychologists Press.
34. Williams, A. M., Vickers, J. N., & Rodrigues, S. T. (2002). The effects of anxiety on visual search, movement kinematics, and performance in table tennis: A test of Eysenck and Calvo’s processing efficiency theory. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 24, 438–455.
35. Wilson, M. R., Wood, G., & Vine, S. J. (2009). Anxiety, attentional control, and performance impairment in penalty kicks. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31, 761–775.
36. Woodman, T., & Hardy, L. (2001). Stress and anxiety. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (pp. 127–170). Wiley.
37. Vella, S. A., Swann, C., Allen, M. S., Schweickle, M. J., & Magee, C. A. (2017). Bidirectional Associations between Sport Involvement and Mental Health in Adolescence. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 49(4), 687-694.
38. Vine, S. J., Moore, L., & Wilson, M. R. (2011). Quiet eye training facilitates competitive putting performance in elite golfers. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 1–9.