SAFE: What Can Be Done to Protect Children From Effects of Maltreatment?

Öz

This study aims to explain the essential elements of effective prevention and intervention services based on the findings compiled from the current literature on child maltreatment programs. This review, presented within the SAFE framework, mainly aims at security forces, social workers, and counselors who give psychological or forensic support services. Among a total of four, the first step of SAFE is about the main path of preventing maltreatment. The remaining three steps are devoted to introducing the qualities for intervention with maltreated children. Adopting a comprehensive approach covering factors that constitute child maltreatment and its multi-level effects has a high potential to increase the quality of the protection and support service and the benefits they produce. We believe that efforts to provide a comprehensive and systematic literature review that aim to support qualified public support service for maltreated children will improve service providers' and society's potential to stop child maltreatment.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Child Maltreatment
• Child Abuse
• Child Neglect
• Intervention
• Child Protection and Support Services

GÜVENDE: Çocuğu Kötü Muamelenin Etkilerinden Korumak İçin Neler Yapılabilir?

Öz

Bu çalışma, çocuğa kötü muameleye dair güncel alan yazından derlenen bulgulardan yola çıkarak etkin önleme ve müdahale hizmetlerinin kapsaması gereken unsurları açıklamayı hedeflemektedir. GÜVENDE olarak adlandırılan bir çerçevede sunulan bu derleme çalışmasının temel hedefi, çocuğa adli, sosyal ve psikolojik destek hizmetleri yürütenleri çocuğa kötü muamelenin önlenmesi ve müdahalesi hakkında bilgilendirmektir. Dört temel unsur içeren GÜVENDE’de ilk olarak kötü muameleyi önlemenin temel yolu tanıtılmaktadır. Son üç unsur ise kötü muamele gören çocuğa etkin müdahalenin niteliklerini tanıtmaya ayrılmıştır. Çocuğa kötü muameleyi oluşturan etkenlere ve onun oluşturduğu çok düzeyli etkilere dair kapsamlı bir bakış açısının benimsenmesinin, koruma ve destek hizmetinin niteliğini ve ürettikleri yararı artırma potansiyeli yüksektir. Kötü muameleye uğrayan çocuğa kamusal destek hizmeti verenlerin nitelikli müdahalesini destekleme amacını güden kapsayıcı ve sistematik bilgi sunma çabalarının, sadece destek hizmeti sağlayıcılarını değil toplumun da çocuğa yapılan kötü muameleyi durdurma potansiyelini artıracağı düşünülmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Çocuğa Kötü Muamele
• Çocuk İstismarı
• Çocuk İhmali
• Müdahale
• Çocuk Koruma ve Destek Hizmetleri

Kaynakça

1. Akyol, C.Ç. ve Kutlu, M. (2019). The effectiveness of sexual psycho-education program for 8th grade students. İnönü University Journal of the Faculty of Education, 20(2), 591-600.
2. Arata, C.M., Langhinrichsen-Rohling, J., Bowers, D. ve O’Brien, N. (2007). Differential correlates of multi-type maltreatment among urban youth. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(4), 393-415.
3. Altafim, E.R.P., Pedro, M.E.A ve Beatriz, M. (2016). Effectiveness of ACT Raising Safe Kids Parenting Program in a developing country. Children and Youth Services Review, 70, 315-323.
4. Altobelli, T. (2010). Cyber-abuse—a new worldwide threat to children's rights. Family Court Review, 48 (3), 459- 481.
5. Alvarez, M., Padilla, S. ve Máiquez, M.L. (2016). Home and group-based implementation of the “Growing Up Happily in the Family” program in at-risk psychosocial contexts. Psychosocial Intervention, 25(2), 69-78.
6. Aydın, A., Tekinsav-Sütçü, S. ve Sorias, O. (2010). Ergenlerde sosyal anksiyete belirtilerini azaltmaya yönelik bilişsel-davranışçı bir grup terapisi programının etkililiğinin değerlendirilmesi. Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 21(1), 25-36.
7. Bandelow, B., Charimo Torrente, A., Wedekind, D., Broocks, A., Hajak, G. ve Rüther, E. (2004). Early traumatic life events, parental rearing styles, family history of mental disorders, and birth risk factors in patients with social anxiety disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 254(6), 397-405.
8. Bartlett, J. M., Kotake, C., Fauth, R. ve Easterbrooks, M. A. (2017). Intergenerational transmission of child abuse and neglect: Do maltreatment type, perpetrator and substantiation matter? Child Abuse & Neglect, 63,84-94.

9. Belsky, J. (1980). Child maltreatment: an ecological integration. American Psychologist, 35(4), 320-35.
10. Berzenski, S.R. ve Yates, T.M. (2011). Consequences of multiple maltreatment: a person-centered analysis. Child Maltreatment, 16(4), 250-261. DOI: 10.1177/1077559511428353
11. Birleşmiş Milletler Çocuklara Yardım Fonu (UNICEF) (2012). United Nations Children’s fund, measuring and monitoring child protection systems: Proposed core indicators for the East Asia and Pacific Region, Strengthening Child Protection Series No. 1. UNICEF EAPRO, Bangkok. ISBN: 978-974-685-138-1.
12. Choi, Y., Kim, Y.S., Kim, S.Y. ve Park, I.K. (2013). Is Asian American parenting controlling and harsh? Empirical testing of relationships between Korean American and Western parenting measures. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4(1), 19-29.
13. Cicchetti, D. ve Olsen, K. (1990). The developmental psychopathology of child maltreatment. M. Lewis ve S.M. Miller (Edt.) Handbook of Developmental Psychopathology içinde (s. 261-279). Boston, MA: Springer.
14. Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L. ve Maughan, A. (2000). An ecological–transactional model of child maltreatment. J. Sameroff, M. Lewis ve S. M. Miller (Edt.), Handbook of developmental psychopathology içinde (s. 689–722). Kluwer Academic Publishers.
15. Cluver, L., Meinck, F., Yakubovich, A., Doubt, J., Redfern, A., Ward, C., Salah, N., De Stone, S., Petersen, T., Mpimpilashe, P., Romero, R.H., Ncobo, L., Lachman, J., Tsoanyane, S., Shenderovich, Y., Loening, H., Byrne, J., Sherr, L., Kaplan, L ve Gardner, F. (2016). Reducing child abuse amongst adolescents in low- and middle-income countries: a pre-post trial in South Africa. BMC Public Health, 16(1), 567.
16. Cluver, L.D., Meinck, F., Steinert, J.I., Shenderovich, Y., Doubt, J., Romero, R.H., Lombard, C.J., Redfern, A., Ward, C.L., Tsoenyane, S., Nzima, D., Sibanda, N., Wittesaele, C., De Stone, S., Boyes, M.E., Catanho, R., Lachman, J.M., Salah, N., Nocuza, M. ve Gardner, F. (2018). Parenting for Lifelong Health: a pragmatic cluster randomised controlled trial of a non-commercialised parenting programme for adolescents and their families in South Africa. BMJ Global Health, 3(1), e000539.
17. Cluver, L., Shenderovich, Y., Meinck, F. Berezin, M.N., Doubt, J., Ward, C.L., Parra-Cardona, J., Lombard, C., Lachman, J.M., Wittesaele, C., Wessels, I., Gardner, F. ve Steinert, J.I. (2020). Parenting, mental health and economic pathways to prevention of violence against children in South Africa. Social Science & Medicine, 262, 113194.
18. Collin-Vézina, D., Sablonniére-Griffin, M., Palmer, A.M., Milne, L. (2015). A preliminary mapping of individual, relational, and social factors that impede disclosure of childhood sexual abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 43, 123-134.
19. Conger, R.D., Ge, X., Elder, G.H., Jr, Lorenz, F.O. ve Simons, R.L. (1994). Economic stress, coercive family process and developmental problems of adolescents [Special issue on children and poverty]. Child Development. 65, 541–561.
20. Covell, K., Howe, R.B. ve McNeil, J.K, (2010) Implementing children’s human rights education in schools. Improving Schools, 13(2), 1-16.
21. Çalışkan, M. (2019). Toplum ve suç araştırmalarında sınırları aşan bir suç: “çevrimiçi çocuk istismarı” ve bu suça karşı alınabilecek önlemler. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 61, 122-131. Çocuk Koruma Haritası (t.b.). Erişim Adresi: www.cocukkorumaharitasi.info Erişim Tarihi: 3.3.2020.
22. Çocuk Koruma Kanunu (2005). Erişim Adresi: https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/MevzuatMetin/1.5.5395.pdf Erişim Tarihi: 20.9.2021.
23. D’Andrea, W., Ford, J., Stolbach, B., Spinazzola, J., ve Van der Kolk, B.A. (2012). Understanding interpersonel trauma in children: Why we need a developmentally appropriate trauma diagnosis. American Journal of Orthopsyciatry 82(2), 187-200.
24. Development Analytics (2017). Türkiye'de 0-6 yaş arası çocuğun durumu. İstanbul: Anne Çocuk Eğitim Vakfı (AÇEV). Erişim Adresi: https://www.acev.org/directory/turkiyede-0-6-yas-arasi-cocugun-durumu/ Erişim Tarihi: 12.04.2021.
25. Dion, J., Matte-Gagne, C., Daigneault, I., Blackburn, M., Hebert, M., McDuff, P., Auclair, J., Veillette, S. ve Perron, M. (2016). A prospective study of the impact of child maltreatment and friend support on psychological distress trajectory: From adolescence to emerging adulthood. Journal of Affective Disorders, 189, 336-343.
26. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü [WHO] (2002). Facts: Child abuse and neglect. Erişim Adresi: https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/world_report/factsheets/en/childabusefacts.pdf Erişim Tarihi: 12.10.2019.
27. Egbatan, M. (2015). Hak temelli politik bir eylem biçimi olarak dava izleme. A. Kurtoğlu (Ed.), Hak temelli izleme ve değerlendirme ve toplumsal cinsiyet anaakımlaştırması içinde (s. 129-156). Ankara: Ceid Yayınları.
28. Ersoy, A.F. (2012). Vatandaşlık eğitiminde ihmal edilen bir alan: Evde ve okulda çocuk haklarının eğitimi. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 4(2), 359-376.
29. Fantuzzo, J., Sutton-Smith, B., Atkins, M., Meyers, R., Stevenson, H., Coolahan, K., Weiss, A. ve Manz, P. (1996). Community-based resilient peer treatment of withdrawn maltreated preschool children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64(6), 1377-1386.
30. Fantuzzo, J,. Manz, P., Atkins, M. ve Meyers, R. (2005). Peer-mediated treatment of socially withdrawn maltreated preschool children: Cultivating natural community resources. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 34(2), 320-325.
31. Finkelhor, D., Wolak, J. ve Berliner, L. (2001). Police reporting and professional help seeking by child victims of violent crime. Child Maltreatment, 6 (1), 17-30.
32. Francis, K.J. ve Wolfe, D.A. (2008). Cognitive and emotional differences between abusive and non-abusive fathers. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32(12), 1127-1137.
33. Glasser, M., Kolvin, I., Campbell, D., Glasser, A., Leitch, I. ve Farrelly, S. (2001). Cycle of child sexual abuse: Links between being a victim and becoming a perpetrator. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 179, 482-494. DOI: 10.1192/bjp.179.6.482
34. Goodman, G. S., Goldfarb, D., Quas, J. A., Narr, R. K., Milojevich, H. ve Cordon, I. M. (2016). Memory development, emotion regulation, and trauma-related psychopathology. D. Cicchetti (Ed), Developmental psychopathology içinde (s. 555–590). New York, NY: Wiley.
35. Green, B.L., Ayoub, C., Bartlett, J.D., Furrer, C., Chazan-Cohen, R., Buttitta, K., Von Ende, A., Koepp, A. ve Regalbuto E. (2020). Pathways to prevention: Early Head Start outcomes in the first three years lead to long-term reductions in child maltreatment. Children and Youth Services Review, 118, 105403.
36. Hébert, M., Langevin, R. ve Oussaïd, E. (2018). Cumulative childhood trauma, emotion regulation, dissociation, and behavior problems in school-aged sexual abuse victims. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 306-312.
37. Hubel, G.S., Rostad, W.L., Self-Brown, S. ve Moreland A.D. (2018). Service needs of adolescent parents in child welfare: Is an evidence based, structured, in-home behavioral parent training protocol effective? Child Abuse & Neglect, 79, 203-212.
38. Karale, R.B., Malgi, P., Mohite, V.R. ve Choudhari, S.K. (2020). Effectiveness of planned teaching programme on knowledge regarding child abuse among mothers. Indian Journal of Public Health Research & Development, 11(3), 743-747.
39. Karataş, K., Aslan, H. ve Kılıç, A. (2019). Türkiye’de çocuk polisinin yapılanması ve görevleri çerçevesinde sosyal hizmetin yeri ve önemi. Toplum ve Sosyal Hizmet, 30(1), 166-186.
40. Kopiec, K., Finkelhor, D. ve Wolak, J. (2004). Which juvenile crime victims get mental health treatment? Child Abuse & Neglect, 28, 45-59.
41. Kuo, J. R., Goldin, P.R., Werner, K., Heimberg, R.G. ve Gross, J.J. (2011). Childhood trauma and current psychological functioning in adults with anxiety disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorder, 25(4), 467-473. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.11.011.
42. Kwak, Y., Mihalec-Adkins, B., Mishra, A. A. ve Christ, S. L. (2018). Differential impacts of participation in organized activities and maltreatment types on adolescent academic and socioemotional development. Child Abuse & Neglect, 78, 107-117.
43. Lachman, J.M., Cluver, L., Ward, C.L., Hutchings, J., Mlotshwa, S., Wessels, I. ve Gardner, F. (2017). Randomized controlled trial of a parenting program to reduce the risk of child maltreatment in South Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect, 72, 338-351.
44. Lachman, J., Wamoyi, J., Spreckelsen, T., Wight, D., Maganga, J. ve Gardner, F. (2020). Combining parenting and economic strengthening programmes to reduce violence against children: a cluster randomised controlled trial with predominantly male caregivers in rural Tanzania. BMJ Global Health, 5(7), e002349.
45. Lam, S., Zwart, C., Chahal, I., Lane, D. ve Cummings, H. (2018). Preventing violence against children in schools: Contributions from the Be Safe program in Sri Lanka. Child Abuse & Neglect, 76, 129-137.
46. Lange, B. C. L., Condon, E. M. ve Gardner, F. (2019). A systematic review of association between the childhood sexual abuse experiences of mother and the abuse status of their children: Protection strategies, intergenerational transmission, and reactions to the abuse of their children. Social Science & Medicine, 233, 113-137.
47. Lee, P. ve Chou, F. (2016). A training program for Taiwan nurses to improve child abuse reporting. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 26 (15-16), 2297-2306.
48. Lee, E., Kirkland, K., Miranda-Julian, C. ve Greene, R. (2018). Reducing maltreatment recurrence through home visitation: A promising intervention for child welfare involved families. Child Abuse & Neglect, 86, 55-66.
49. Lewis, M. ve Feiring, C. (1992). Indirect and direct effects and family interaction. S. Feinman (Ed.) Social Referencing and the Social Consruction of Reality in Infancy içinde (s. 297-321). Boston, MA, Springer. ISBN(online): 978-1-4899-2462-9
50. Maguire-Jack, K., Gromoske, A. N. ve Berger, L. M. (2012). Spanking and child development during the first 5 years of life. Child Development, 83 (6), 1960- 1977.
51. Margolin, G. ve Gordis, E. B. (2004). Children’s exposure to violence in the family and community. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(4), 152-155.
52. MacKenzie, M. J., Kotch, J. B. ve Lee, L. C. (2011). Toward a cumulative ecological risk model for the etiology of child maltreatment. Children and Youth Services Review, 33(9), 1638–1647.
53. Morris, M.C., Kouros, C.D., Janecek, K., Freeman, R., Mielock, A. ve Garber J. (2016). Community-level moderators of a school-based childhood sexual assault prevention program. Child Abuse & Neglect, 63, 295-306.
54. Nedim-Bal, P. ve Öner, M. (2014). Sosyal kaygı ile başa çıkma psiko eğitim programının ortaokul öğrencileri üzerindeki etkisi. Eğitim Bilimleri Araştırma Dergisi, 4(1), 335-348.
55. Oppenheim-Weller, S. ve Zeira A. (2018). SafeCare in Israel: The challenges of implementing an evidence-based program. Children and Youth Services Review, 85, 187-193.
56. Öztürk, A. (2017). Çocuk hakları ve eğitimine psikolojik bir bakış. Uludağ Üniversitesi Fen- Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 18(33), 429-451.
57. Öztürk, A. (2018). Yaşam boyu aile döngüleri ve uyum. M. Akyıldız (Ed.) Aile İçi Uyumlu Etkileşim içinde (s.115-139 ). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Açıköğretim Fakültesi Yayınları. ISBN: 978-975-06-2882-5.
58. Öztürk, A. (2020). Çocuğa kötü muamele: İstismar ve ihmalin önlenebilir psikolojik ve gelişimsel etkileri. Çocuk ve Gençlik Ruh Sağlığı Dergisi, 27(1), 7-19.
59. Pears, K. C. ve Capaldi, D. M. (2001). Intergenerational transmission of abuse: a two- generational prospective study of an at-risk sample. Child Abuse & Neglect, 25, 1439-1461.
60. Reading, R., Bissell, S., Goldhagen, J., Harwin, J., Masson, J., Moynihan, S., Parton, N., Santos Pais, M., Thoburn, J. ve Webb, E. (2009). Promotion of children's rights and prevention of child maltreatment, The Lancet, 373(9660), 332-343.
61. Rothenberg, W.A., Hussong, A.M. ve Chassin, L. (2016). Intergenerational continuity in high conflict family environments. Developmental Psychopathology, 28(1), 293-308.
62. Rubin, K.H., Coplan, R.J. ve Bowker, J.C. (2009). Social withdrawal in childhood. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 141-171. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163642
63. Sertelin Mercan, Ç. ve Yavuzer, H. (2017). Bilişsel-davranışçı yaklaşımla bütünleştirilmiş sosyal beceri eğitiminin ergenlerin sosyal kaygı düzeyine etkisi. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 16(63), 1187-1202.
64. Shenderovich, Y., Cluver, L., Eisner, M. ve Murray, A.L. (2020). Moderators of treatment effects in a child maltreatment prevention programme in South Africa. Child Abuse & Neglect,106, 104519.
65. Simon, N.M., Herlands, N.N., Marks, E.H., Mancini, C., Letamendi, A., Li, Z., Pollack, M.H., Van Ameringen, M. ve Stein, M.B. (2009). Childhood maltreatment linked to greater symptom severity and poorer quality of life and function in social anxiety disorder. Depression and Anxiety, 26, 1027-1032.
66. Sofuoğlu, Z., Sarıyer, G. ve Ataman, M.G. (2016). Child maltreatment in Turkey: Comparison of parent and child reports. Central European Journal of Public Health, 24(3), 217-222.
67. Stoltenborgh, M., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M.J., Lenneke, R.A.A. ve van Ijzendoorn, M.H. (2012). The universality of childhood emotional abuse: a meta-analysis of worldwide prevalence. Journal of Aggression, Maltreatment & Trauma, 21(8), 870-890. DOI: 10.1080/10926771.2012.708014
68. Stouthamer-Loeber, M., Loeber, R., Homish, D.L. ve Wei, E. (2001). Maltreatment of boys and the development of disruptive and delinquent behavior. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 941–955.
69. Taal, M. ve Edelaar, M. (1997). Positive and negative effects of a child sexual abuse prevention program. Child Abuse & Neglect, 21(4), 399-410. DOI: 10.1016/S0145-2134(96)00179-2
70. Tat, M. ve Öztürk, A. (2019). Çocuk cinsel istismarında kendini açığa vurma sürecine ekolojik sistem modeli yaklaşımı. Psikiyatride Güncel Yaklaşımlar, 11(3), 363-385.
71. T.C. Aile, Çalışma ve Sosyal Hizmetler Bakanlığı (t.b.). Anka çocuk destek programı. Erişim Adresi: https://www.aile.gov.tr/chgm/sayfalar/anka-cocuk-destek-programi/ Erişim Tarihi: 13.9.2021.
72. T. C. Kalkınma Bakanlığı (2014). Onuncu kalkınma planı 2014-2018 çocuk çalışma grubu raporu. Erişim Adresi: http://www.kalkinma.gov.tr/Lists/zel%20htisas%20Komisyonu%20Raporlar/Attachments/244/%C3%A7ocuk%20%C3%A7al%C4%B1%C5%9Fma%20grubu%20OIKI.pdf. Erişim Tarihi: 13.12.2016.
73. T.C. Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı [MEB] (2019, 12 Aralık). Özel eğitim ve rehberlik genel müdürlüğü rehberlik programları. Erişim Adresi: https://orgm.meb.gov.tr/www/rehberlik-programlari/icerik/102. Erişim Tarihi: 02.04.2021.
74. Teng, Y.T., Kuo, L.T. ve Zhou, Q. (2018). Maternal employment and family socioeconomic status: Unique relations to maternal stress, parenting beliefs, and preschoolers' adjustment in Taiwanese families. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 27(11), 3506-3519.
75. Thomas, R. ve Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2012). Parent-child interaction therapy: An evidence-based treatment for child maltreatment. Child Maltreatment, 17(3), 253-266.
76. Tracy, M., Salo, M ve Appleton A. A. (2018). The mitigating effects of maternal support and paternal involvement on the intergenerational transmission of violence. Child Abuse & Neglect, 78, 46-59.
77. Turner, C.W., Robbins, M.S., Rowlands, S. ve Weaver, L.R. (2017). Summary of comparison between FFT-CW and Usual Care sample from Administration for Children's Services. Child Abuse & Neglect, 69, 85-95.
78. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu [TÜİK] (2020, Temmuz). Güvenlik birimine gelen veya getirilen çocuk istatistikleri, 2015-2019. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu Haber Bülteni, 33632. Erişim adresi: https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Juvenile-Statistics-Received-Into-Security-Unit-2015-2019-33632.
79. Visser, M., Schoemaker, K., de Schipper, C., Lamers-Winkelman, F. ve Finkenauer, C. (2016). Interparental violence and the mediating role of parental availability in children’s trauma related symptoms. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 9(2), 115-125.
80. Yates, T. M. (2007). The developmental consequences of child emotional abuse: A neurodevelopmental perspective. Journal of Emotional Abuse, 7, 9–34. DOI:10.1300/J135v07n02_02
81. Yılmaz Irmak, T., Kızıltepe, I., Aksel, Ş., Güngör, D. ve Eslek, D. (2018). Mika ile kendimi korumayı öğreniyorum: Cinsel istismarı önleme programının etkililiği. Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 33(81), 41-57.
82. Yıldırım, N. ve Kublay, G. (2016). 1-4 Yaş çocuklarına yönelik ev kazalarını önleme programının etkinliği. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Hemşirelik Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(2), 1–13.
83. Young, J.C. ve Widom, C.S. (2014). Long-term effects of child abuse and neglect on emotion processing in adulthood. Child Abuse & Neglect, 38(8), 1369-1381.