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Energy Poverty and Its Effect on Economic Growth in Türkiye

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 17 Sayı: 3, 517 - 536, 31.12.2024
https://doi.org/10.17218/hititsbd.1478715

Öz

The energy poverty of households presents one of the significant threats to sustainable development worldwide. Governments, international organizations like the United Nations, and various non-governmental organizations have enacted policy measures to mitigate energy poverty and its negative impacts on society. This concern is exacerbated by the finite nature of fossil fuel resources globally and persistent instabilities such as the Russia-Ukraine conflict, the Iran-Israel conflict, and the COVID-19 pandemic, which contribute to price fluctuations and energy supply insecurity. Consequently, the issue of energy poverty may become increasingly intricate and prominent in the near future. Due to its importance, the issue of energy poverty has been widely investigated in the literature. A new dimension in the literature is based on the relationship between energy poverty, which is defined as the inability to access a sufficient volume of clean energy, and economic growth. Energy poverty can affect the economy through lower productivity and lower labor force participation. In this regard, the majority of studies in the literature have focused on African countries with low electricity access rates, typically using energy access rates as a proxy for energy poverty. In those studies, "energy poverty" and "energy deprivation" are often used interchangeably. However, this approach is not appropriate, as energy poverty and energy deprivation due to low energy access rates imply different conditions. While energy access rate can serve as a measure of energy poverty, relying solely on this indicator may not always accurately reflect the extent of energy poverty. This is because households with full infrastructure and access to clean and continuous energy sources may not always be able to fully utilize these sources, owing to cost constraints, income deficiencies, or other factors. A striking example of this situation can be seen in Türkiye, where 20.3% of households face difficulties in adequately heating their homes, representing one of the highest rates in Europe. Additionally, the average per capita household energy consumption in Europe was 1.7 MWh in 2021, whereas in Türkiye, it was only 0.56 MWh on average, which is one-third of the EU average. This happens despite Türkiye having relatively low energy prices, various support programs in place, and nearly 100% electricity access and very high natural gas access rates. Hence, unlike other studies that use energy access rate, this study utilizes per capita household electricity consumption as an indicator of energy poverty, which could provide a more precise evaluation, especially for Türkiye. This introduces a novel viewpoint in the research on energy poverty and economic growth. For this reason this study examines data from 2007 to 2021 comprising 15 years of annual data with DOLS and FMOLS panel econometric techniques across 26 regions of Türkiye, to uncover the association between energy poverty and economic growth. Additionally, factors such as the consumer price index, population, and industrial electricity demand per capita for production are used as control variable. According to both of the estimation techniques an increase in household electricity consumption may also lead to an increase in per capita GDP in Türkiye.

Kaynakça

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Türkiye’de Enerji Yoksulluğu ve Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerindeki Etkisi

Yıl 2024, Cilt: 17 Sayı: 3, 517 - 536, 31.12.2024
https://doi.org/10.17218/hititsbd.1478715

Öz

Hanehalklarının enerji yoksulluğu, son yıllarda önemi gittikçe artan ve gündemde önemli bir yer tutan sürdürülebilir kalkınma çabaları aleyhine dünya çapında önemli tehditlerden birini teşkil etmektedir. Hükümetlerle birlikte, Birleşmiş Milletler gibi uluslararası örgütler ve çeşitli sivil toplum kuruluşları ise, enerji yoksulluğunu gündeme taşımakta ve bu durumun olumsuz etkilerini hafifletmeye yönelik politika önlemleri geliştirmektedirler. Bu endişenin, küresel fosil yakıt kaynaklarının sınırlı doğası ve Rusya-Ukrayna ve İran-İsrail çatışması ile COVID-19 pandemisi gibi süregelen istikrarsızlıklar nedeniyle oluşan fiyat şokları ve enerji arz güvenliği sorunları nedeniyle yakın gelecekte giderek daha karmaşık ve belirgin hale gelebileceği söylenebilir. Bu önemi dolayısıyla, enerji yoksulluğu konusunun önemi gittikçe artmakta ve akademik literatürde de geniş çapta araştırılmaktadır. İlişkili olarak, literatürdeki yeni bir bakış açısı enerji yoksulluğu ile ekonomik büyüme arasındaki ilişki üzerine odaklanmaktadır. Enerji yoksulluğu, hanehalklarının temiz enerji kaynaklarına yeterli miktarda erişememesi veya bu kaynaklardan yeterli miktarda faydalanamaması olarak tanımlanabilir. Temelde bu durum ise iki farklı etki aracılığıyla bir ülkenin ekonomik büyüme oranlarını olumsuz etkileyebilir. Bu etkilerden birincisi hanehalklarının sağlıklı şekilde yeterince enerjiden faydalanamaması dolayısıyla azalan işgücü verimliliğiyle ilişkiliyken diğeri ise düşen işgücüne katılım oranları ile alakalıdır. Bu bağlamda, literatürdeki çoğu çalışma, enerji alt yapısının çok yetersiz olduğu ve enerjiye erişim oranlarının düşük olduğu Afrika ülkelerine odaklanmıştır ve genellikle enerji erişim oranlarını enerji yoksulluğunun bir ölçütü olarak kullanmaktadırlar. Bu çalışmalarda, "enerji yoksulluğu" ve "enerji yoksunluğu" sıklıkla birbirinin yerine kullanılmaktadır. Ancak, bu yaklaşım pek doğru değildir zira enerji yoksulluğu ve enerji alt yapısının olmamasından kaynaklanan enerji yoksunluğu farklı kavramları ifade etmektedir. Her ne kadar enerji erişim oranı, enerji yoksulluğunun bir ölçüsü olarak kullanılabilirse de, sadece bu gösterge enerji yoksulluğunun gerçek boyutunu her zaman tam olarak yansıtmayabilir. Bunun nedeni, %100 enerji altyapısına sahip ve temiz enerji kaynaklarına erişimi olan hanehalkları dahi, yüksek maliyet, yoksulluk veya diğer faktörler nedeniyle bu kaynaklardan her zaman tam manasıyla istifade edemeyebilirler. Bu durumun en çarpıcı örneklerinden biri Türkiye'de görülebilir; zira Türkiye’de hanehalklarının %20,3'ü evlerini yeterince ısıtamamaktadırlar ve bu oran Avrupa'daki en yüksek oranlardan biridir. Ek olarak, Avrupa'da 2021'de kişi başına düşen ortalama hanehalkı elektrik tüketimi 1,7 MWh iken, Türkiye'de bu miktar sadece 0,56 MWh olup, AB ortalamasının üçte biri kadardır. Bu durum, Türkiye'deki nispeten düşük enerji fiyatlarına, devletin sağlamış olduğu çeşitli enerji destek programlarına ve neredeyse %100 elektrik erişimine ve çok yüksek doğal gaz erişim oranlarına sahip olmasına rağmen gerçekleşmektedir. Bu nedenle, enerji erişim oranını kullanan diğer çalışmaların aksine, bu çalışmada özellikle Türkiye için daha doğru bir değerlendirme sağlayabilecek şekilde, kişi başına düşen hanehalkı elektrik tüketimi enerji yoksulluğunun bir göstergesi olarak kullanılmaktadır. Bu yaklaşım, enerji yoksulluğu ve ekonomik büyüme arasındaki ilişkiyi ele alan literatüre orjinal bir katkı sağlamakta ve yeni bir bakış açısı getirmektedir. Bu doğrultuda, çalışmada Türkiye’de enerji yoksulluğu ile ekonomik büyüme arasındaki ilişkiyi anlamak üzere Türkiye'nin 26 bölgesi için 2007'den 2021'e kadar olan 15 yıllık veri seti DOLS ve FMOLS panel ekonometrik teknikleri yardımıyla ele alınmıştır. Ayrıca, tüketici fiyat endeksi, nüfus ve üretimde kullanılan kişi başına endüstriyel elektrik talebi gibi faktörler kontrol değişkeni olarak kullanılmıştır. Her iki tahmin tekniğine göre de, hanehalklarının elektrik tüketimindeki artışın Türkiye'de kişi başına GSMH'da bir artışa neden olabileceği sonucuna varılmıştır.

Kaynakça

  • Akinsola, F. A., & Odhiambo, N. M. (2017). Inflation and economic growth: A review of the international literature. http://doi.org/10.1515/cer-2017-0019
  • Amin, A., Liu, Y., Yu, J., Chandio, A. A., Rasool, S. F., Luo, J., & Zaman, S. (2020). How does energy poverty affect economic development? A panel data analysis of South Asian countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27, 31623-31635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-09173-6
  • Ansari, M. A., Villanthenkodath, M. A., Akram, V., & Rath, B. N. (2023). The nexus between ecological footprint, economic growth, and energy poverty in sub-Saharan Africa: a technological threshold approach. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25(8), 7823-7850. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02377-5
  • Bhattacharya, M., Paramati, S. R., Ozturk, I., & Bhattacharya, S. (2016). The effect of renewable energy consumption on economic growth: Evidence from top 38 countries. Applied energy, 162, 733-741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.10.104
  • Breusch, T. S., & Pagan, A. R. (1980). The Lagrange multiplier test and its applications to model specification in econometrics. The Review of Economic Studies, 47(1), 239-253. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2297111
  • Cárdenas, C. C., & Yúñez, A. I. (2023). Understanding the link between energy poverty and economic growth in Latin America. Contaduría y administración, 68(2), 175-198. http://dx.doi.org/10.22201/fca.24488410e.2023.4629
  • Chen, Y., Shen, H., Smith, K. R., Guan, D., Chen, Y., Shen, G., ... & Tao, S. (2018). Estimating household air pollution exposures and health impacts from space heating in rural China. Environment International, 119, 117-124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.04.054
  • Choi, I. (2001). Unit root tests for panel data. Journal of International Money and Finance, 20(2), 249-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5606(00)00048-6
  • Demir, D., & Kuveloğlu, D. T. (2023). Orta Asya Türk Cumhuriyetlerinde enerji yoksulluğu. Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari Çalışmalar Dergisi, 1(1), 50-70. Retrieved from: https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/ulic/issue/81533/1375990
  • Doğanalp, N., Ozsolak, B., & Aslan, A. (2021). The effects of energy poverty on economic growth: a panel data analysis for BRICS countries. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(36), 50167-50178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-14185-x
  • EMRA, Turkish Energy Market Regulatory Authority. Retrieved from: https://www.epdk.gov.tr/Detay/Icerik/2-13029/haber
  • Eke, E. U., & Ayranci, E. (2018). Türkiye'de elektrik enerjisi sektörünün enerji yoksulluğu açısından değerlendirilmesi. Politik Ekonomik Kuram, 2(2), 109-129. Retrieved from: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/613721
  • EMRB, Energy Market Regulatory Board. Retrieved from: https://www.epdk.gov.tr/Detay/DownloadDocument?id=q1+IjuEMT6k=
  • Emre, T., İzgeç, M. M., & Sözen, A. (2021). Enerji yoksulluğu konusundaki literatüre genel bakış. Politeknik Dergisi, 26(3), 1255-1266. Retrieved from: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/810589
  • EPIAS, Energy Markets Operation Corporation. Retrieved from: https://www.epias.com.tr/genel/kdv-orani-degisikligi-hk/
  • Eurostat1. Per Capita Household Electricity Consumption in Europe, Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php? title=Electricity_and_heat_statistics#Consumption_of_electricity_per_capita_in_the_households_sector
  • Eurostat2, Electricity Prices for Household Consumers. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Electricity_price_statistics#Electricity_prices_for_household_consumers
  • Eurostat3, Natural Gas Prices for Household Consumers. Retrieved from: https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Natural_gas_price_statistics#Natural_gas_prices_for_household_consumers
  • Garba, I., & Bellingham, R. (2021). Energy poverty: Estimating the impact of solid cooking fuels on GDP per capita in developing countries-Case of sub-Saharan Africa. Energy, 221, 119770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2021.119770
  • Ghodsi, M., & Huang, X. (2015). Causality between energy poverty and economic growth in Africa: Evidences from time and frequency domain causality test. International Journal of Energy and Statistics, 3(04), 1550020. http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/S2335680415500209
  • González-Eguino, M. (2015). Energy poverty: An overview. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 47, 377-385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.03.013
  • González-Martín, J., Kraakman, N. J. R., Pérez, C., Lebrero, R., & Muñoz, R. (2021). A state–of–the-art review on indoor air pollution and strategies for indoor air pollution control. Chemosphere, 262, 128376. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128376
  • Hamit-Haggar, M. (2012). Greenhouse gas emissions, energy consumption and economic growth: A panel cointegration analysis from Canadian industrial sector perspective. Energy Economics, 34(1), 358-364. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2011.06.005
  • Jebli, M. B., Youssef, S. B., & Ozturk, I. (2016). Testing environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis: The role of renewable and non-renewable energy consumption and trade in OECD countries. Ecological Indicators, 60, 824-831. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.08.031
  • John, A. S., & Deinde, I. G. (2021). Energy poverty, climate change and economic growth. Energy, 4(3), 98-115. https://doi.org/10.52589/AJESD-U3LCOY0P
  • Kao, C. 1999. Spurious regression and residual-based tests for cointegration in panel data. Journal of Econometrics, 90,1-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4076(98)00023-2
  • Kennard, H. R., Huebner, G. M., Shipworth, D., & Oreszczyn, T. (2020). The associations between thermal variety and health: Implications for space heating energy use. Plos One, 15(7), e0236116. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0236116
  • Khan, M. W. A., Panigrahi, S. K., Almuniri, K. S. N., Soomro, M. I., Mirjat, N. H., & Alqaydi, E. S. (2019). Investigating the dynamic impact of CO2 emissions and economic growth on renewable energy production: Evidence from FMOLS and DOLS tests. Processes, 7(8), 496. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/pr7080496
  • Levin, A., Lin, C. F., and Chu, C. S. J. (2002). Unit root tests in panel data: asymptotic and finite-sample properties. Journal of Econometrics, 108(1), 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-4076(01)00098-7
  • Maddala, G. S., & Wu, S. (1999). A comparative study of unit root tests with panel data and a new simple test. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and statistics, 61(S1), 631-652. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1468-0084.0610s1631
  • Manga, M. (2020). Enerji yoksulluğu ve ekonomik büyüme ilişkisi. Bulletin of Economic Theory and Analysis, 5(2), 101-114. Retrieved from: https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/1352745
  • Mannan, M., & Al-Ghamdi, S. G. (2021). Indoor air quality in buildings: A comprehensive review on the factors influencing air pollution in residential and commercial structure. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6), 3276. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063276
  • MFSS. Retrieved from: https://www.aile.gov.tr/sygm/programlarimiz/sosyal-yardim-programlarimiz/
  • Narayan, P. K., & Smyth, R. (2008). Energy consumption and real GDP in G7 countries: new evidence from panel cointegration with structural breaks. Energy Wconomics, 30(5), 2331-2341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eneco.2007.10.006
  • Odhiambo, N. M. (2010). Energy consumption, prices and economic growth in three SSA countries: A comparative study. Energy Policy, 38(5), 2463-2469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2009.12.040
  • Olusegun, A. K., Adefunke, A. M., Usman, D. I., Daniel, A. A., Kabir, O. O., & Fiberesima, N. G. (2023). Energy poverty and economic growth in Nigeria: an empirical analysis from 1990–2021. Asian Journal of Social Science and Management Technology, 5(3), 138-145. Retrieved from: https://www.ajssmt.com/Papers/53138145.pdf
  • Othman, A. N., & Masih, M. (2015). Do profit and loss sharing (PLS) deposits also affect PLS financing? evidence from Malaysia based on DOLS, FMOLS and system GMM techniques. Retrieved from: https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/65224/
  • Pedroni, P. (1999). Critical values for cointegration tests in heterogeneous panels with multiple regressors. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 61(S1), 653-670. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/1468-0084.0610s1653
  • Pesaran, M. H.. & Yamagata, T. (2008).Testing Slope Homogeneity in Large Panels. Journal of Econometrics, 142, 50–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2007.05.010
  • Pesaran, M. H. (2004). General diagnostic tests for cross section dependence in panels. Cambridge Working Papers. Economics, 1240(1), 1. https://doi.org/10.17863/CAM.5113
  • Pesaran, M. H. (2007). A simple panel unit root test in the presence of cross‐section dependence. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 22(2), 265-312. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1002/jae.951
  • Pesaran, M. H., Ullah, A., & Yamagata, T. (2008). A bias‐adjusted LM test of error cross‐section independence. The Econometrics Journal, 11(1), 105-127. Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1368-423X.2007.00227.x
  • Phillips, P. C., & Hansen, B. E. (1990). Statistical inference in instrumental variables regression with I (1) processes. The Review o Economic Studies, 57(1), 99-125. Retrieved from: https://www.jstor.org/stable/2297545
  • Pwc, Retrieved from: https://www.pwc.com.tr/tr/hizmetlerimiz/insan-yonetimi-ve-organizasyon-danismanligi/sosyal-guvenlik-hizmetleri/bultenler/2022/elektrik-dogalgaz-ve-diger-isinma-giderlerine-iliskin-sigorta-primi-istisnasi-hk.html
  • Singh, K., & Inglesi-Lotz, R. (2021). The role of energy poverty on economic growth in sub-Saharan African countries. Retrieved from: https://ideas.repec.org/a/aen/eeepjl/eeep10-1-singh.html
  • Soytas, U., & Sari, R. (2003). Energy consumption and GDP: causality relationship in G-7 countries and emerging markets. Energy Economics, 25(1), 33-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-9883(02)00009-9
  • Statistita. The percentage of households unable to adequately heat their homes. Retrieved from: https://www.statista.com/chart/28652/share-of-people-in-energy-poverty-in-europe/
  • TurkStat RSD, Turkish Statistical Institute, Regional Statistics Database. Retrieved from: https://biruni.tuik.gov.tr/bolgeselistatistik/anaSayfa.do?dil=tr
  • Ullah, S., Khan, M., & Yoon, S. M. (2021). Measuring energy poverty and its impact on economic growth in Pakistan. Sustainability, 13(19), 10969.https://doi.org/10.3390/su131910969
  • Wang, Q., & Wu, N. (2012). Long-run covariance and its applications in cointegration regression. The Stata Journal, 12(3), 515-542. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X1201200312
  • Westerlund, J. (2005). New simple tests for panel cointegration. Econometric Reviews, 24(3), 297-316. https://doi.org/10.1080/07474930500243019
  • World Bank WDI. World Development Indicators. Electric power consumption (kWh per capita). Retrieved from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.USE.ELEC.KH.PC
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  • Yahyaoui, I., & Bouchoucha, N. (2021). The long‐run relationship between ODA, growth and governance: An application of FMOLS and DOLS approaches. African Development Review, 33(1), 38-54. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12489
Toplam 54 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Konular Büyüme
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Yahya Algül 0000-0003-3480-9871

Erken Görünüm Tarihi 13 Aralık 2024
Yayımlanma Tarihi 31 Aralık 2024
Gönderilme Tarihi 5 Mayıs 2024
Kabul Tarihi 13 Kasım 2024
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2024 Cilt: 17 Sayı: 3

Kaynak Göster

APA Algül, Y. (2024). Energy Poverty and Its Effect on Economic Growth in Türkiye. Hitit Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 17(3), 517-536. https://doi.org/10.17218/hititsbd.1478715
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