Araştırma Makalesi
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A Muslim Pasha in the Center of Eastern Question: Muhammed Ali of Egypt

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 37 Sayı: 1, 235 - 245, 30.06.2020
https://doi.org/10.32600/huefd.649145

Öz

The Eastern Question of the 19th century is a short-hand for the problems between the Christian subjects of the Sultan and the Sublime Porte as well as the efforts of the European states to mediate between them. In addressing this issue, participants sought to maintain the balance between small and great powers of the Europe, while at the same time trying to satisfy both the Sublime Porte and the Christian subjects of the Sultan. In actual fact, however, the Eastern Question of the 1830s focused on the relationship, or rather the crisis, between the Sublime Porte and its Muslim Pasha of Egypt, Muhammad Ali, who threatened to destroy the Ottoman Empire twice in the third decade of the 19th century. The present study analyses the Eastern Question on the basis of the available literature as well as the testimonies of contemporary witnesses. It argues that the positioning of the great powers not only vis-à-vis the Ottoman reforms themselves, but also their assessment of the Ottomans’ ability and inclination for reform, was the result of their real political considerations about the crisis between the Sultan and Muhammad Ali. Not surprisingly, the support of and even push for reform in the Ottoman Empire which became a fundamental principle of British foreign policy in the 1830s was shaped by the Eastern Question.

Kaynakça

  • Aksan, V. H. (2007). Military Reform and Its Limits in a Shrinking Ottoman World, 1800–1840. dies. und Goffman (Hrgb.), Early Modern Ottomans: Remapping the Empire. (S. 117–133). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Bailey, F. E. (1970). British Policy and the Turkish Reform Movement: A Study in Anglo-Turkish Relations, 1826–1853. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  • Bayly, C. A. (2004). The Birth of the Modern World, 1780–1914: Global Connections and Comparisons. Malden, Mass. [u. a.]: Blackwell Pub.
  • Beydilli, K. (2009). Şark Meselesi. Halil İnalcık Armağanı Cilt I, İstanbul: Doğu Batı Yayınları.
  • Blanc, L. (1845). Reaktion d. Kontinentalpolitik gegen d. Julirevolution: Neue Organisation d. demokr. Partei. Kampf zw. d. parlamentarischen u. königlichen Prärogative: Die Orientalische Frage. Zürich.
  • Bolsover, G. H. (1936). David Urquhart and the Eastern Question, 1833–1837: A Study in Publicity and Diplomacy. The Journal of Modern History, (3, S. 444–467).
  • Cargill, W. (1840). Mehemet Ali, Lord Palmerston, Russia, and France: Position of England, Turkey, and Russia, Egypt and Turkey, Negotiations at Alexandria, Objects of Russia, Treaty of July 15, 1840, Rupture of the Anglo-French Alliance, Insurrection and Convulsion in the Ottoman Empire, Way Prepared for the Occuption of Constantinople by Russia, Stipulation to That Effect by Four Powers in Europe, Prospects of India. London: J. Raid and Co.
  • Crawley, C. W. (1929). Anglo-Russian Relations, 1815–40. Cambridge Historical Journal, (3/1, S. 47–73).
  • Cunningham, A. (1981). The Sick Man and the British Physician. Middle Eastern Studies. (17/2 April, S. 147–173).
  • Daly, J. C.K. (1991). Russian Seapower and ‘The Eastern Question’, 1827-41. Studies in Russia and East Europe, London [u.a.]: Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd.Davison, R H. (1999). Britain, the International Spectrum, and the Eastern Question, 1827–1841. Dasvison, R. H. (Hrgb.)Nineteenth Century Ottoman Diplomacy and Reforms. (S. 149–168). İstanbul: Isis Press.
  • Eldem, E. (2006). Capitulations and Western Trade. Faroqhi, Suraiya N. [Hrsg.]. The Cambridge History of Turkey, Bd. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603-1839. (S. 283-335). New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Firges, P. (2009). Großbritannien und das Osmanische Reich Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts. Europäische Gleichgewichtspolitik und Geopolitische Strategien, Annweiler am Trifels: Sonnenberg.
  • Frary, L J. und Kozelsky, M. (Hrgb.). (2014). Russian Ottoman Borderlands. Eastern Question Reconsidered. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Gencer, M. (2006). Imperialismus und die Orientalische Frage: Deutsch-Türkische Beziehungen (1871-1908), Ankara: TTK.
  • Gerhard, D. (1933). England und der Aufstieg Russlands: Zur Frage des Zusammenhanges der europäischen Staaten und ihres Ausgreifens in die außereuropäische Welt in Politik und Wirtschaft des 18. Jahrhunderts, München [u. a.]: Oldenbourg.
  • Horniker, A. L. (1942). William Harborne and the Beginning of Anglo-Turkish Diplomatic and Commercial Relations. The Journal of Modern History. (14/3 (Sept.), S. 289–316).
  • Horniker, A. L. (1946). Anglo-French Rivalry in the Levant from 1583 to 1612. The Journal of Modern History. (18/4 (Dez.), S. 289–305).
  • Ingram, E. (1979). The Beginning of the Great Game in Asia, 1828–34, Oxford [u. a.]: Clarendon.
  • James, L. (2005). The Rise and Fall of the British Empire. London: Abacus.
  • John, J. A. St.  (1834). Egypt and Mohammed Ali, or, Travels in the Valley of the Nile, 2 Bde., Bd. 2. London: Longman [u.a.].
  • Kubicek, R. (1999). British Expansion, Empire, and Technological Change. Andrew Porter [Hrsg.]. The Historu Pf British Empire: The Nineteenth Century. (S. 247–269). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Kutluoğlu, M. H. (1998).The Egyptian Question, (1831–1841): The Expansionist Policy of Mehmed Ali Paşa in Syria and Asia Minor and the Reaction of the Sublime Porte, Istanbul: Eren.
  • Onley, J. (2005). Britain’s Informal Empire in the Gulf, 1820–1871. Journal of Social Affairs, (22/87, Herbst 2005), S. 29–45).
  • Robarts, A. (2017). Migration and Disease in the Black Sea Region: Ottoman-Russian Relations in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries. London u.a.: Bloomsbury.Rodkey, F. S. (1924). The Turco-Egyptian Question in the Relation of England, France, and Russia, 1832–1841, Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois.
  • Rowland, A. L. (1924). England and Turkey: The Rise of Diplomatic and Commercial Relations, Philadelphia: University of Pensilvania.
  • Seton-Watson, R. W. (1945). Britain in Europe, 1789–1914: A Survey of Foreign Policy, Cambridge: University Press.
  • Sidebottom, J. K. (1948). The Overland Mail: A Postal History Study of the Mail Route to India, London: Allen and Unwin for The Postal History Soc.
  • Smiley, W. (2016). War Without War: The Battle of Navarino, the Ottoman Empire, and the Pacific Blockade. Journal of the History of International Law. (18/2016, S. 42-69).
  • The Times. (6. Dezember 1833).
  • Temperley, H. (1933). British Policy towards Parliamentary Rule and Constitutionalism in Turkey (1830–1914). The Cambridge Historical Journal, (4/2, S. 156–191).
  • Todorova, M. (1977). British and Russian Policy towards the Reform Movement in the Ottoman Empire (30-ies – 50-ies of the 19th C.). Etudes Balkaniques. (3, S. 17–41).
  • Webster, C. (1951). The Foreign Policy of Palmerston 1830–1841: Britain, the Liberal Movement, and the Eastern Question 2 Bde., London 1951, Bd. 1.
  • Yapp, M.E. (1987). The Making of the Modern Near East, 1792-1812. London: Longman.

Ein Muslimischer Pascha im Zentrum der Orientalischen Frage: Muhammed Ali von Ägypten

Yıl 2020, Cilt: 37 Sayı: 1, 235 - 245, 30.06.2020
https://doi.org/10.32600/huefd.649145

Öz




















19. yüzyıl Şark Meselesi altında genel olarak Bab-ı Ali ile Hıristiyan tebaası arasındaki sorunları ve bu sorunların çözümünde Batılı güçlerin arabuluculuk yapma stratejileri anlaşılmaktaydı. Bunu yaparken, bir yandan Batılı büyük ve küçük devletlerin mevcut güçler dengesinin bozulmaması diğer taraftan ise Sultan’ın ve Hıristiyan tebaasının memnuniyeti gözetilmeliydi. De facto olarak ama 1830’larda şark meselesinin merkezinde Sultanın Hıristiyan tebaası değil, Sultanın Müslüman bir Paşası, Mısır valisi Mehmed Ali’nin iki defa imparatorluğun varlığını tehdidiyle oluşan kriz bulunmaktaydı. Bu çalışmanın amacı şimdiye kadar yayımlanan araştırma literatürü ve olaylar esnasında ve akabinde yazılan ve yayımlanan rapor ve değerlendirmelerden yola çıkarak 1830’ların Şark Meselesi’ni analiz etmektedir. Bu analizler, Muhammed Ali ile Osmanlı Hükümeti arasında yaşanan kriz, Batılı güçlerin gerek Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda reform yapılmasına gerekse Osmanlıların reform yapabilme potansiyelini değerlendirirken her birinin kendi reel politik zaviyesinden duruşunu şekillendirdiğini göstermektedir. İngiltere’nin Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda reform politikasını desteklemesi 1830’ların Şark Meselesi çerçevesinde şekillenmiştir.

Kaynakça

  • Aksan, V. H. (2007). Military Reform and Its Limits in a Shrinking Ottoman World, 1800–1840. dies. und Goffman (Hrgb.), Early Modern Ottomans: Remapping the Empire. (S. 117–133). Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Bailey, F. E. (1970). British Policy and the Turkish Reform Movement: A Study in Anglo-Turkish Relations, 1826–1853. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
  • Bayly, C. A. (2004). The Birth of the Modern World, 1780–1914: Global Connections and Comparisons. Malden, Mass. [u. a.]: Blackwell Pub.
  • Beydilli, K. (2009). Şark Meselesi. Halil İnalcık Armağanı Cilt I, İstanbul: Doğu Batı Yayınları.
  • Blanc, L. (1845). Reaktion d. Kontinentalpolitik gegen d. Julirevolution: Neue Organisation d. demokr. Partei. Kampf zw. d. parlamentarischen u. königlichen Prärogative: Die Orientalische Frage. Zürich.
  • Bolsover, G. H. (1936). David Urquhart and the Eastern Question, 1833–1837: A Study in Publicity and Diplomacy. The Journal of Modern History, (3, S. 444–467).
  • Cargill, W. (1840). Mehemet Ali, Lord Palmerston, Russia, and France: Position of England, Turkey, and Russia, Egypt and Turkey, Negotiations at Alexandria, Objects of Russia, Treaty of July 15, 1840, Rupture of the Anglo-French Alliance, Insurrection and Convulsion in the Ottoman Empire, Way Prepared for the Occuption of Constantinople by Russia, Stipulation to That Effect by Four Powers in Europe, Prospects of India. London: J. Raid and Co.
  • Crawley, C. W. (1929). Anglo-Russian Relations, 1815–40. Cambridge Historical Journal, (3/1, S. 47–73).
  • Cunningham, A. (1981). The Sick Man and the British Physician. Middle Eastern Studies. (17/2 April, S. 147–173).
  • Daly, J. C.K. (1991). Russian Seapower and ‘The Eastern Question’, 1827-41. Studies in Russia and East Europe, London [u.a.]: Macmillan Academic and Professional Ltd.Davison, R H. (1999). Britain, the International Spectrum, and the Eastern Question, 1827–1841. Dasvison, R. H. (Hrgb.)Nineteenth Century Ottoman Diplomacy and Reforms. (S. 149–168). İstanbul: Isis Press.
  • Eldem, E. (2006). Capitulations and Western Trade. Faroqhi, Suraiya N. [Hrsg.]. The Cambridge History of Turkey, Bd. 3: The Later Ottoman Empire, 1603-1839. (S. 283-335). New York: Cambridge University Press.
  • Firges, P. (2009). Großbritannien und das Osmanische Reich Ende des 18. Jahrhunderts. Europäische Gleichgewichtspolitik und Geopolitische Strategien, Annweiler am Trifels: Sonnenberg.
  • Frary, L J. und Kozelsky, M. (Hrgb.). (2014). Russian Ottoman Borderlands. Eastern Question Reconsidered. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press.
  • Gencer, M. (2006). Imperialismus und die Orientalische Frage: Deutsch-Türkische Beziehungen (1871-1908), Ankara: TTK.
  • Gerhard, D. (1933). England und der Aufstieg Russlands: Zur Frage des Zusammenhanges der europäischen Staaten und ihres Ausgreifens in die außereuropäische Welt in Politik und Wirtschaft des 18. Jahrhunderts, München [u. a.]: Oldenbourg.
  • Horniker, A. L. (1942). William Harborne and the Beginning of Anglo-Turkish Diplomatic and Commercial Relations. The Journal of Modern History. (14/3 (Sept.), S. 289–316).
  • Horniker, A. L. (1946). Anglo-French Rivalry in the Levant from 1583 to 1612. The Journal of Modern History. (18/4 (Dez.), S. 289–305).
  • Ingram, E. (1979). The Beginning of the Great Game in Asia, 1828–34, Oxford [u. a.]: Clarendon.
  • James, L. (2005). The Rise and Fall of the British Empire. London: Abacus.
  • John, J. A. St.  (1834). Egypt and Mohammed Ali, or, Travels in the Valley of the Nile, 2 Bde., Bd. 2. London: Longman [u.a.].
  • Kubicek, R. (1999). British Expansion, Empire, and Technological Change. Andrew Porter [Hrsg.]. The Historu Pf British Empire: The Nineteenth Century. (S. 247–269). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Kutluoğlu, M. H. (1998).The Egyptian Question, (1831–1841): The Expansionist Policy of Mehmed Ali Paşa in Syria and Asia Minor and the Reaction of the Sublime Porte, Istanbul: Eren.
  • Onley, J. (2005). Britain’s Informal Empire in the Gulf, 1820–1871. Journal of Social Affairs, (22/87, Herbst 2005), S. 29–45).
  • Robarts, A. (2017). Migration and Disease in the Black Sea Region: Ottoman-Russian Relations in the Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Centuries. London u.a.: Bloomsbury.Rodkey, F. S. (1924). The Turco-Egyptian Question in the Relation of England, France, and Russia, 1832–1841, Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois.
  • Rowland, A. L. (1924). England and Turkey: The Rise of Diplomatic and Commercial Relations, Philadelphia: University of Pensilvania.
  • Seton-Watson, R. W. (1945). Britain in Europe, 1789–1914: A Survey of Foreign Policy, Cambridge: University Press.
  • Sidebottom, J. K. (1948). The Overland Mail: A Postal History Study of the Mail Route to India, London: Allen and Unwin for The Postal History Soc.
  • Smiley, W. (2016). War Without War: The Battle of Navarino, the Ottoman Empire, and the Pacific Blockade. Journal of the History of International Law. (18/2016, S. 42-69).
  • The Times. (6. Dezember 1833).
  • Temperley, H. (1933). British Policy towards Parliamentary Rule and Constitutionalism in Turkey (1830–1914). The Cambridge Historical Journal, (4/2, S. 156–191).
  • Todorova, M. (1977). British and Russian Policy towards the Reform Movement in the Ottoman Empire (30-ies – 50-ies of the 19th C.). Etudes Balkaniques. (3, S. 17–41).
  • Webster, C. (1951). The Foreign Policy of Palmerston 1830–1841: Britain, the Liberal Movement, and the Eastern Question 2 Bde., London 1951, Bd. 1.
  • Yapp, M.E. (1987). The Making of the Modern Near East, 1792-1812. London: Longman.
Toplam 33 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

Gülay Tulasoğlu

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Haziran 2020
Gönderilme Tarihi 20 Kasım 2019
Kabul Tarihi 19 Mart 2020
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2020 Cilt: 37 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Tulasoğlu, G. (2020). A Muslim Pasha in the Center of Eastern Question: Muhammed Ali of Egypt. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 37(1), 235-245. https://doi.org/10.32600/huefd.649145


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