Child Labor in Turkey via Symmetric and Asymmetric Models: Logit, Probit, Log-log, and Clog-log

Yıl 2022, Cilt: 40 Sayı: 4, 776 - 798, 27.12.2022

Fulden Kömüryakan Ebru Çağlayan

https://doi.org/10.17065/huniibf.1069864

Öz

Child labor is still an important social and economic issue despite the efforts to reduce and prevent child labor around the world. Although the child labor rate in Turkey is below the world average, it is almost two times higher than in European and North American countries. This study aims to examine the factors affecting child labor in Turkey by taking into account the asymmetric structure that may exist in the national level micro-data. To achieve this aim, the Child Labor Force Survey data of 2019 are employed. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to analyze child labor via the asymmetric log-log and complementary log-log models besides the frequently used symmetric logit and probit models. The findings point out an asymmetric structure in child labor data and the log-log model based on the Gumbel distribution is a more convenient model for modeling child labor in Turkey. The estimation results reveal that the social, economic, and demographic characteristics of the child, parents, and household are significant determinants of child labor. More specifically, the results indicate that the policy and legislative proposals to prevent child labor should target boys between the ages of 15-17, especially those who have younger siblings and live in crowded households.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Child labor, logit, probit, log-log, clog-log

TÜRKİYE’DE ÇOCUK İŞÇİLİĞİNİN SİMETRİK VE ASİMETRİK MODELLER İLE ANALİZİ: LOGİT, PROBİT, LOG-LOG VE CLOG-LOG

Öz

Çocuk işçiliği, dünya genelinde yürütülen çocuk işçiliğini azaltma ve önleme çalışmalarına karşın önemli bir sosyal ve ekonomik sorun olarak varlığını sürdürmeye devam etmektedir. Türkiye’de çocuk işçiliği oranı, dünya ortalamasının altında olmasına rağmen Avrupa ve Kuzey Amerika ülkelerine göre neredeyse iki kat daha fazladır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye’de çocuk işçiliği üzerinde etkili olan faktörleri ulusal düzey mikro veride mevcut olabilecek asimetrik yapıyı dikkate alarak analiz etmektir. Bu amaçla, 2019 yılına ait Çocuk İşgücü Araştırması verilerinden yararlanılmıştır. Bilgimiz dahilinde bu çalışma çocuk işçiliğini araştırmalarda sıklıkla kullanılan simetrik logit ve probit modellerinin yanı sıra asimetrik log-log ve tamamlayıcı log-log modelleri ile analiz eden ilk çalışmadır. Bulgular, çocuk işçiliği verisinde asimetrik yapı olduğuna dair kanıtlar sunmaktadır. Çocuk işçiliğinin modellenmesinde, Gumbel dağılımından hareketle tahmin yapan log-log modelinin daha uygun olduğu belirlenmiştir. Analizler ışığında, çocuğun, ebeveynin ve hanehalkının sosyal, ekonomik ve demografik özelliklerinin çocuk işçiliği üzerinde önemli etkilere sahip olduğu bulunmuştur. Sonuçlar, çocuk işçiliğini önlemeye yönelik program, politika ve kanun önerilerinin, 15-17 yaş aralığında, özellikle kendinden küçük kardeşi bulunan ve kalabalık hanelerde ikamet eden erkek çocukları hedef alması gerektiğini ifade etmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Çocuk işçiliği, logit, probit, log-log, clog-log

Kaynakça

• Abraham, R. (2000). The role of job control as a moderator of emotional dissonance and emotional intelligence-outcome relationships. The Journal of Psychology, 134(2), 169-184. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980009600860
• Abraham, R. (1998). Emotional dissonance in organizations: A conceptualization of consequences, mediators and moderators. Leadership & Organization Development Journal, 19(3), 137-146. https://doi.org/10.1108/01437739810210185
• Aiken, L., & West, S. (1991). Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions. California: Sage Publications Inc.
• Albayrak, A. S. (2006). Uygulamalı Çok Değişkenli İstatistik Teknikleri. Ankara: Asil Yayın Dağıtım Ltd. Şti.
• Ashforth, B., & Humphrey, R. (1993). Emotional labor in service roles: The influence of identitiy. Academy of Management Review, 88-115. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1993.3997508
• Bailey, C., Madden, A., Alfes, K., & Fletcher, L. (2017). The meaning, antecedents and outcomes of employee engagement: A narrative synthesis. International Journal of Management Reviews, 19, 31-53. https://doi.org/10.1111/ijmr.12077
• Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., de Boer, E., & Schaufeli, W. B. (2003). Job demands and job resources as predictors of absence duration and frequency. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 62, 341-356. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-8791(02)00030-1
• Bakker, A., & Demerouti, E. (2008). Towards a model of work engagement. Career Development International, 13(3), 209-223. https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430810870476
• Bakker, A., & Demerouti, E. (2014). Job Demands - Resources Theory. In P. Chen, & C. Cooper (Eds.), Work and Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide, Volume III. John Wiley & Sons.
• Bakker, A., Demerouti, E., & Verbeke, W. (2004). Using the job demands-resources model to predict burnout and performance. Human Resources Management, 43(1), 83-104. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrm.20004
• Bakker, A., Hakanen, J., Demerouti, E., & Xahthopoulou, D. (2007). Job resources boost work engagement, particularly when job demands are high. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99(2), 274-284. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.2.274
• Baron , R., & Kenny, D. (1986). The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173-1182. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.51.6.1173
• Basım, H. N., & Beğenirbaş, M. (2012). Çalışma yaşamında duygusal emek: Bir ölçek uyarlama çalışması. Yönetim ve Ekonomi, 19(1), 77-90.
• Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
• Breevaart, K., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & van den Heuvel, M. (2015). Leader-member exchange, work engagement, and job performance. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 30(7), 754-770. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-03-2013-0088
• Caesens, G., & Stinglhamber, F. (2014). The relationship between perceived organizational support and work engagement: The role of self-efficacy and its outcomes. Revue Europeenne de Psychologie Appliquee, 64, 259-267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erap.2014.08.002
• Chang, H.-Y. (2011). Restaurant service providers' emotional labor: The antecedents and effects on employees' intention to leave. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi.
• Chu, K. H., Baker, M. A., & Murrmann, S. K. (2012). When we are on stage, we smile: The effects of emotional labor on employee work outcomes. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31, 906-915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.10.009
• Chu, K. H.L. (2002). The Effects of Emotional Labor on Employee Work Outcomes. Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi.
• Chu, K. H.-L., & Murrmann, S. K. (2006). Development and validation of the hospitality emotional labor scale. Tourism Management, 1181-1191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2005.12.011
• de Jonge, J., Dormann, C., & van den Tooren, M. (2008). The Demand-Induced Strain Compensation Model: Renewed Theoretical Considerations and Emperical Evidence. In K. Naswall, J. Hellgren, & M. Sverke (Eds.), The Individual in the Changing Working Life (pp. 67-87). Cambridge University Press.
• Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2000). The "what" and "why" of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4), 227-268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01
• Demerouti, E., & Bakker, A. B. (2011). The job demands-resources model: Challenges for future research. Journal of Industrial Psychology, 37(2). https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v37i2.974
• Demerouti, E., Bakker, A., Nachreiner, F., & Schaufeli, W. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499-512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499
• Diefendorff, J. M., & Richard, E. M. (2003). Antecedents and consequences of emotional display rule perceptions. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(2), 284-294. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.2.284
• Diefendorff, J., & Gosserand, R. (2003). Understanding the emotional labor process: a control theory perspective. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 24, 945-959. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.230
• Erdem , B. (2004). Otel işletmelerinde insan kaynakları planlamasının yeri ve önemi. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 35-55.
• Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004). Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(1), 115-134. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.51.1.115
• Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: the broaden and build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218
• Freudenberger, H. J. (1974). Staff burn-out. Journal of Social Issues, 30(1), 159-165. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1974.tb00706.x
• George, D., & Mallery, P. (2020). IBM SPSS Statisticis 26 Step by Step A Simple Guide and Reference (16th ed.). New York: Routledge.
• Gorgievski, M. J., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2008). Work Can Burn Us Out or Fire Us Up: Conservation of Resources in Burnout and Engagement. In J. R. Halbesleben, & J. R. Halbesleben (Ed.), Handbook of Stress and Burnout in Health Care. Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
• Hackman, J. R. (1980). Work redesign and motivation. Professional Psychology, 11, 445-455. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.11.3.445
• Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1975). Development of the job diagnostic survey. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60(2), 159-170. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0076546
• Hackman, J. R., & Oldham, G. R. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: Test of a theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 16, 250-279. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7
• Hair, J., Black, W., Babin, B., & Anderson, R. (2019). Multivariate Data Analysis (8. Baskı ed.). Hampshire: Cengage Learning.
• Hartel, C. E., Zerbe, W. J., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2005). Organizational Behavior: An Emotions Perspective. In C. E. Hartel, W. J. Zerbe, & N. M. Ashkanasy, Emotions in Organizational Behavior (pp. 1-11). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
• Hartline, M., & Ferrell, O. (1996). The management of customer-contact service employees: An empirical investigation. Journal of Marketing, 60, 52-70. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224299606000406
• Heuven, E., Bakker, A. B., Schaufeli , W. B., & Huisman, N. (2006). The role of self-efficacy in performing emotion work. Journal of Vocational Behavior(69), 222-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2006.03.002
• Hobfoll, S. (1989). Conservation of resources a new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513-524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513
• Hobfoll, S. (2002). Social and psychological resources and adaptation. Review of General Psychology, 6(4), 307-324. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.6.4.307
• Hochschild, A. (2003). The Managed Hearth: Commercialization of Human Feeling. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The Managed Heart. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
• Hofmann, V., & Stokburger-Sauer, N. (2017). The impact of emotional labor on employees' work-life balance perception and commitment: A study in the hospitality industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 65, 47-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2017.06.003
• İplik, F. N., Topsakal, Y., & İplik, E. (2014). The effects of emotional labor on job attitudes of hotel employees: Mediating and moderating roles of social support and job autonomy. International Review of Management and Marketing, 4(3), 175-186.
• Isen, A., Daubman, K., & Nowicki, G. (1987). Positive affect facilitates creative problem solving. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(6), 1122-1131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.52.6.1122
• Kahn, W. A. (1990). Psychological conditions of personal engagement and disengagement at work. Academy of Management Journal, 33(4), 692-724. https://doi.org/10.2307/256287
• Karatepe, O., & Aleshinloye, K. D. (2009). Emotional dissonance and emotional exhaustion among hotel employees in nigeria. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28, 349-358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2008.12.002
• Kemper, T. D. (1990). Themes and Variations in the Sociology of Emotions. In T. D. Kemper (Ed.), Research Agendas In The Sociology Of Emotions (pp. 3-27). New York: State University of New York.
• Lam, W., & Chen, Z. (2012). When i put on my service mask: Determinants and outcomes of emotional labor among hotel service providers according to affective event theory. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31, 3-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.04.009
• Li, X., Sanders, K., & Frenkel, S. (2012). How leader-member exchange, work engagement and hrm consistency explain chinese luxury hotel employees' job performance. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31, 1059-1066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2012.01.002
• Macey, W. H., Schneider, B., Barbera, K. M., & Young, S. A. (2009). Employee Engagement: Tools for Analysis, Practice, and Competitive Advantage. Malden: Wiley. Maslach, C., & Leiter, M. (1997). The Truth About Burnout. San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons.
• Maslach, C., Schaufeli, W., & Leiter, M. (2001). Job burnout. Annual Review of Psychology, 52, 397-422. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.397
• May, D., Gilson, R., & Harter, L. (2004). The psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety and availability and the engagement of the human spirit at work. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 11-37. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317904322915892
• Montgomery, D. C., Peck, E. A., & Vining, G. G. (2013). Doğrusal Regresyon Analizine Giriş (Beşinci Basımdan Çeviri ed.). Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık.
• Morris, J., & Feldman, D. (1996). The dimensions, antecedents, and consequences of emotional labor. Academy of Management Review, 21(4), 989-1010. https://doi.org/10.2307/259161
• Naktiyok, A. (2019). Örgütsel Davranışa Giriş. In Ö. F. İşcan (Ed.), Örgütsel Davranış (pp. 4-29). Erzurum: Atatürk Üniversitesi Açıköğretim Fakültesi.
• Pienaar, J., & Willemse, S. A. (2008). Burnout, engagement, coping and general health of service employees in the hospitality industry. Tourism Management, 29, 1053-1063. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2008.01.006
• Sargut, A. S. (2002). Bilimin ikilemi: belirlenirlik ya da belirlenmezlik. Yönetim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(2), 121-126.
• Schaubroeck, J., & Jones, J. (2000). Antecedents of workplace emotional labor dimensions and moderators of their effects on physical symptoms. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 21, 163-183. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1379(200003)21:2<163::AID-JOB37>3.0.CO;2-L
• Schaufeli , W. B. (2013). What is engagement? In C. Truss, R. Delbridge, K. Alfes, A. Shantz, & E. Soane (Eds.), Employee Engagement in Theory and Practice (pp. 15-36). New York: Routledge.
• Schaufeli , W. B., Salanova, M., Gonzalez-Roma, V., & Bakker, A. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 3, 71-92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326
• Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B., & van Rhenen, W. (2009). How changes in job demands and resources predict burnout, work engagement, and sickness absenteeism. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(7), 345-356. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.595
• Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A., & Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire. Educational and psychological measurement, 66(4), 701-716. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282471
• Schaufeli, W., Salanova, M., Gonzalez-Roma, V., & Bakker, A. (2002). The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. Journal of Happiness Studies, 71-92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326
• Slatten, T., & Mehmetoğlu, M. (2011). Antecedents and effects of engaged frontline employees a study from the hospitality industry. Managing Service Quality, 21(1), 88-107. https://doi.org/10.1108/09604521111100261
• Suan, C. L., & Nasurdin, A. M. (2016). Supervisor support and work engagement of hotel employees in Malaysia. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 31(1), 2-18. https://doi.org/10.1108/GM-11-2014-0105
• Sutton, R. I., & Rafaeli, A. (1988). Untangling the relationship between displayed emotions and organizational sales: The case of convenience stores. The Academy of Management Journal, 31(3), 461-487. https://doi.org/10.2307/256456
• Tajifel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations, 33-47.
• Tolich, M. B. (1993). Alienating and liberating emotions at work. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 22(3), 361-381. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124193022003004
• Van den Broeck, A., Vansteenkiste, M., De Witte, H., & Lens, W. (2008). Explaining the relationships between job characteristics, burnout, and engagement: the role of basic psychological need satisfaction. Work & Stress, 22(3), 277-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370802393672
• Wharton, A. S. (1993). The affective consequences of service work: Managing emotions on the job. Work and Occupations, 20(2), 205-232. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888493020002004
• William, J. (1884). What is an Emotion? Oxford University Press, 188-205.
• Wright, T. A., & Hobfoll, S. E. (2004). Commitment, psychological well-being and job performance: An examination of conservation of resources (cor) theory and job burnout. Journal of Business and Management, 9(4), 389-406.
• Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A., Dollard, M., Demerouti, E., Schaufeli, W., Taris, T., & Schreurs, P. (2007). When do job demands particularly predict burnout? Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(8), 766-786. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710837714
• Yıldırım, E. (2007). Örgüt Kuramında Yeni Gelişmeler: Postmodern ve Eleştirel Bakış. In A. S. Sargut, & Ş. Özen (Eds.), Örgüt Kuramları (2. Basım ed., pp. 379-407). Ankara: İmge Kitabevi.
• Yoo, J., & Jeong, J. (2017). The effects of emotional labor on work engagement and boundary spanner creativity. Asia Pacific Journal of Innovation, 11(2), 214-232. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJIE-08-2017-028
• Yukl, G. (1989). Leadership in Organizations. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
• Zapf, D., Seifert, C., Schmutte, B., Mertini, H., & Holz , M. (2001). Emotion work and job stressors and their effects on burnout. Psychology & Health, 16(5), 527-545. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870440108405525 .