X PAYLAŞIMLARINDA TOPLUMSAL CİNSİYET SÖYLEMLERİ: FİLENİN SULTANLARI ÜZERİNE BİR İNCELEME

Öz

Bu çalışma, Türkiye A Milli Kadın Voleybol Takımı (Filenin Sultanları) üzerine X (eski adıyla Twitter) platformunda yapılan yorumlarda toplumsal cinsiyet temelli söylemleri incelemektedir. Araştırmanın amacı, kadın sporculara yönelik cinsiyetçi, homofobik, dini/ideolojik ve performansa dayalı önyargıların sosyal medyada nasıl üretildiğini ve yayıldığını ortaya koymaktır. Nitel araştırma deseninde gerçekleştirilen çalışmada, Türkiye Voleybol Federasyonu’nun 3 Eylül 2023 tarihinde Avrupa Şampiyonluğu sonrası yaptığı 12 paylaşımın altına gelen toplam 1.726 yorum içerik analizi yöntemiyle incelenmiştir. Yorumlar, homofobi/LGBTİ+ düşmanlığı, nefret/ayrıştırma, dini/ideolojik saldırı, cinsiyetçi söylem ve performansa dayalı önyargılar şeklinde kategorize edilmiştir. Bulgular, tüm yorumların yaklaşık beşte birinin olumsuz ya da karşıt söylemler içerdiğini göstermiştir. Analiz sonucunda öne çıkan temel temalar; homofobi/LGBTİ+ karşıtlığı, nefret ve ayrıştırma söylemleri, dini ve ideolojik referanslar, cinsiyetçi söylemler ve performansa dayalı önyargılardır. Bu temalar altında, kadın sporcuların özellikle cinsel kimlikleri, toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri ve milli kimlikle ilişkileri üzerinden hedef alındıkları görülmüştür. Ayrıca bazı yorumların sporcuların performansına odaklansa da çoğunlukla önyargılı ve dışlayıcı bir dil içerdiği belirlenmiştir. Genel olarak çalışma, kadın sporcuların sosyal medyada yalnızca sportif başarılarıyla değil, kimlikleri ve toplumsal rolleri üzerinden de tartışıldığını ortaya koymuştur.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Toplumsal Cinsiyet
• Sosyal Medya
• Söylem
• X
• Filenin Sultanları.

GENDER DISCOURSES IN X POSTS: A STUDY ON SULTANS OF THE NET

Öz

This study examines gender-based discourses in comments on the X platform about the Turkish National Women’s Volleyball Team. The aim of the research is to reveal how sexist, homophobic, religious/ideological, and performance-based biases directed at female athletes are produced and disseminated on social media. Conducted within a qualitative research design, the study analyzed a total of 1,726 comments posted under 12 tweets shared by the Turkish Volleyball Federation on September 3, 2023, following the team’s European Championship victory. The comments were categorized into homophobia/LGBTI+ hostility, hate/separatist discourse, religious/ideological attacks, sexist discourse, and performance-based prejudices. Findings indicate that approximately one-fifth of all comments contained negative or oppositional discourse. The analysis highlighted that the main themes revolved around homophobia/LGBTI+ antagonism, hate and exclusionary language, religious and ideological references, sexist remarks, and performance-related biases. Within these themes, it was observed that female athletes were particularly targeted based on their sexual identities, gender roles, and associations with national identity. Although some comments focused on athletes’ performance, they were mostly shaped by prejudiced and exclusionary rhetoric. Overall, the study demonstrates that female athletes on social media are discussed not only in relation to their sporting achievements but also through the lens of their identities and social roles.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Gender
• Social media
• Discourse
• X
• Sultans of the Net.

Kaynakça

1. Adeniyi, E. (2003). Effect of political crises on women: towards the management and peaceful resolution of conflicts. In M.L. Kwanashie (Ed.), Politics and political power relations in Nigeria (pp.349-358). Lagos Dat and Partners Logistics Ltd.
2. Ağırtmış, F. K. (2023). Toplumsal cinsiyet bağlamında internet haber sitelerinin haber oluşturma pratikleri: T24 ve Habertürk Örneği. Uluslararası Eşitlik Politikası Dergisi, 3(1), 45-77. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/3232357
3. Akmeşe, Z., & Deniz, K. (2015). Kadına yönelik cinsiyetçi söylemin internet haber portallarında yer alma biçimleri. Uşak Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 8(1), 311-326.
4. Alpay, S., & Orta, L. (2022). Spor medyasında kadının cinsiyetçilik bağlamında incelenmesi. İnönü Üniversitesi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 9(2), 1-14. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/inubesyo/issue/71327/1132295
5. Anderson, L. (2021, 27 Nisan). The fourth wave: How social media has revolutionised feminism. Debating Communities and Networks XII Conference. https:// networkconference.netstudies.org/2021/2021/04/27/the-fourth-wave-how-social- media-has-revolutionised-feminism/
6. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice Hall.
7. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. Freeman.
8. Banet-Weiser, S. (2018). Empowered: Popular feminism and popular misogyny. Duke University Press.

9. Barak, A. (2005). Sexual harassment on the internet. Social Science Computer Review, 23(1), 77-92.
10. Bem, S.L. (1984). Androgyny and gender schema theory: A conceptual and empirical integration. In T.B. Sonderegger (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Psychology and gender. University of Nebraska Press.
11. Bilton, T., Bonnett, K., Jones, P., Lawson, T., Skinner, D., Stanworth, M., & Webster, A. (2008). Sosyoloji (Kemal İnal, Çev.). Siyasal Yayınevi.
12. Bingöl, O. (2014). Toplumsal cinsiyet olgusu ve Türkiye’de kadınlık. KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomı̇k Araştırmalar Dergı̇si, 16(Özel Sayı I), 108-114. https://dergipark. org.tr/en/download/article-file/107207
13. Bowes, A., & Culvin, A. (Eds.). (2021). The professionalisation of women’s sport: Issues and debates. Emerald Publishing Limited.
14. Bruce, T. (2016). New rules for new times: Sportswomen and media representation in the third wave. Sex Roles, 74, 361-376.
15. Burton, D. (1982). Through glass darkly: through dark glasses: on stylistics and political commitment - Via a Study of a Passage from Sylvia Plath’s The Bell Jar. In R. Carter (ed.), Language and Literature: An Introductory Reader in Stylistics (pp. 195-214) Allen and Unwin.
16. Buss, D. M. (1996). The evolutionary psychology of human social strategies. In E.T. Higgins & A.W. Kruglanski (Eds.), Social psychology: Handbook of basic principles (pp. 3-38). Guilford Press.
17. Buss, D. M., & Kenrick, D. T. (1998). Evolutionary social psychology. In D.T. Gilbert, S.T. Fiske, & G. Lindzey (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp.982-1026). McGraw-Hill.
18. Buss, D. M., & Schmitt, D. P. (1993). Sexual strategies theory: An evolutionary perspective on human mating. Psychological Review, 100, 204-232.
19. Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676-713.
20. Butler, J. (1993). Bodies that matter: on the discursive limits of ‘sex’. Routledge.
21. Butler, J. (1999). Gender trouble: feminism and the subversion of identity. Routledge.
22. Citron, D.K., & Franks, M.A. (2014). Criminalizing revenge porn. Wake Forest Law Review, 49(2), 345-391. https://scholarship.law.bu.edu/faculty_scholarship/ 643
23. Collins, R. L. (2011). Content analysis of gender roles in media: Where are we now and where should we go? Sex Roles, 64, 290-298.
24. Crossley, N., Edwards, G., Harries, E., & Stevenson, R. (2012). Covert social movement networks and the secrecy-efficiency trade off: The case of the UK suffragettes (1906-1914). Social Networks, 34(4), 634-644.
25. Daly, M., & Wilson, M. (1998). The evolutionary social psychology of family violence. In C. Crawford & D.L. Krebs (Eds.), Handbook of evolutionary psychology: Ideas, issues, and applications (pp. 431-456). Erlbaum.
26. Deem, A. (2019). Extreme speech: The digital traces of #whitegenocide and alt-right affective economies of transgression. International Journal of Communication, 13, 3183-3202.
27. Dreßing, H., Bailer, J., Anders, A., Wagner, H., & Gallas, C. (2014). Cyberstalking in a large sample of social network users: Prevalence, characteristics, and impact upon victims. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 17, 61-67.
28. Eagly, A.H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408-423.
29. Ergül-Güvendi, N. (2023). Toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri bağlamında Türk kültüründe kadın: kuramsal bir tartışma. Türkiye Sosyal Araştımalar Dergisi, 27(3), 551- 564. https://dergipark.org.tr/en/pub/tsadergisi/issue/81254/1224431
30. Fagot, B.I., Rodgers, C.S., & Leinbach, M.D. (2012). Theories of gender socialization. In The developmental social psychology of gender (pp.65-89). Psychology Press.
31. Fernandez, R.M., & Abraham, M. (2010). From metaphors to mechanisms: Gender sorting in (to) an organizational hierarchy. MIT Sloan School Working Paper 4779-10.
32. Fosch-Villaronga, E., Poulsen, A., Søraa, R. A., & Custers, B. H. M. (2021). A little bird told me your gender: Gender inferences in social media. Information Processing & Management, 58(3), 102541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ipm.2021.102541
33. Ge, Y., Knittel, C. R., MacKenzie, D., & Zoepf, S. (2016). Racial and gender discrimination in transportation network companies (No. w22776). National Bureau of Economic Research.
34. Grodecki, M., Szczepańska, D., & Pasamonik, B. (2024). Nationalism and anti- LGBTQ+: Exploring the role of nationalism in soccer fans’ protests against LGBTQ+ equal rights. Sociology of Sport Journal, 1, 1-11.
35. Gül, S.S., & Altındal, Y. (2015). Medyada kadın cinayeti haberlerindeki cinsiyetçi izler: Radikal Gazetesi. Akdeniz Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 24, 168-188.
36. Günindi-Ersöz, A. (2010). Türk atasözleri ve deyimlerinde kadına yönelik toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri. Gazi Türkiyat, 1(6), 167-182. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/ pub/gaziturkiyat/issue/6719/90293
37. Haas, L., & Hwang, C. P. (2007). Gender and organizational culture: Correlates of companies’ responsiveness to fathers in Sweden. Gender & Society, 21(1), 52-79.
38. Hall, S. (1980). Encoding/decoding. In S. Hall, D. Hobson, A. Lowe, & P. Willis (eds.), Culture, media, language: Working papers in cultural studies (pp. 128- 138). Routledge.
39. Hekimoğlu, G. (2019). Ataerkil söylemin medyadaki izdüşümü: Rinso reklam filmi üzerine bir inceleme. Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 19(4), 1189-1206.
40. Henry, N., & Powell, A. (2014). The dark side of the virtual world: Towards a digital sexual ethics. In N. Henry & A. Powell (Eds.), Preventing sexual violence: Interdisciplinary approaches to overcoming a rape culture (pp.84-104). Palgrave Macmillan.
41. Hu, L.P. (2022). Türk erkekleriyle evli olan ve Türkiye’de yaşamakta olan Çinli kadınların toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri üzerine bir araştırma. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları (HÜTAD), 36, 155-175.
42. Hurst, J., Leberman, S., & Edwards, M. (2016). Women managing women: Intersections between hierarchical relationships, career development and gender equity. Gender in Management: An International Journal, 31(1), 61-74.
43. Jackson, S. (2018). Young feminists, feminism and digital media. Feminism & Psychology, 28(1), 32-49.
44. Jain, S. (2020). The rising fourth wave: Feminist activism on digital platforms in India. ORF Issue Brief, 384, 1-16.
45. Johnson, Z., & Mathur-Helm, B. (2011). Experiences with queen bees: a South African study exploring the reluctance of women executives to promote other women in the workplace. South African Journal of Business Management, 42(4), 47-55. https://hdl.handle.net/10419/218470
46. Jost, J.T., & Kay, A.C. (2005). Exposure to benevolent sexism and complementary gender stereotypes: Consequences for specific and diffuse forms of system justification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88, 498-509.
47. Jouët, J. (2018). Digital feminism: Questioning the renewal of activism. Journal of Research in Gender Studies, 8(1), 133-157.
48. Kaufman, D. (2023). “Football is...” Populism, (Homo) nationalism, and Strategies for New NFL Audiences. Journal of Sport History, 50(2), 226-238. https:// doi.org/10.5406/21558450.50.2.06
49. Kavada, A. (2018). Connective or collective? The intersection between online crowds and social movements in contemporary activism. In G. Meikle (Ed.), The Routledge companion to media and activism (1st ed., pp.108-116). Routledge.
50. Kaya-İlhan, Ç., & Bozkurt, G. (2023). 8 Mart Dünya Kadınlar Gününe ilişkin haberlerin toplumsal cinsiyet bağlamında incelenmesi: BBC Türkçe ve Hürriyet Gazetesi örneği. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi (e-gifder), 11(1), 369-406.
51. Kerevel, Y. P., & Atkeson, L. R. (2013). Explaining the marginalization of women in legislative institutions. The Journal of Politics, 75(4), 980-992. https:// doi.org/10.1017/S0022381613000960
52. Kian, E.M., Clavio, G., Vincent, J., & Shaw, S.D. (2011). Homophobic and sexist yet uncontested: Examining football fan postings on internet message boards. Journal of Homosexuality, 58(5), 680-699.
53. Korkmaz, A., & Başer, M. (2019). Toplumsal cinsiyet rolleri bağlamında ataerkillik ve iktidar ilişkileri. Sürekli Tıp Eğitimi Dergisi, 28(1), 71-76.
54. Krippendorff, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (2nd ed.). Sage.
55. Lillian, D.L. (2007). A thorn by any other name: Sexist discourse as hate speech. Discourse & Society, 18(6), 719-740.
56. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Sage.
57. Maccoby, E.E. (1990). Gender and relationships: A developmental account. American Psychologist, 45(4), 513-520.
58. McVeigh, R., Cunningham, D., & Farrell, J. (2014). Political polarization as a social movement outcome: 1960s Klan activism and its enduring impact on political realignment in Southern counties, 1960 to 2000. American Sociological Review, 79(6), 1144-1171.
59. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: An expanded sourcebook (2nd ed.). Sage.
60. Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). Sage.
61. Mock, J. (2012). Why I started #GirlsLikeUs Twitter hashtag for trans women. http://janetmock.com/2012/05/28/twitter-girlslikeus-campaign-for-transwomen/
62. Modupe, A., Bamidele, R., Olakunle, O., Olubukoye, O., & Susan, A. (2019). Women and political marginalization in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Policy Review, 11(1), 20-55.
63. Mosher, C. M. (2001). The social implications of sexual identity formation and the coming-out process: A review of the theoretical and empirical literature. The Family Journal, 9(2), 164-173.
64. Neuendorf, K. A. (2017). The content analysis guidebook (2nd ed.). Sage.
65. Niemeyer, K. (2015). A theoretical approach to vintage. from oenology to media. European Journal for Media Studies, 4(2), 85-102.
66. Nova, F. F., DeVito, M. A., Saha, P., Rashid, K. S., Roy Turzo, S., Afrin, S., & Guha, S. (2021). ‘Facebook promotes more harassment’ social media ecosystem, skill and marginalized Hijra identity in Bangladesh. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction, 5(CSCW1), 1-35.
67. Nylund, D. (2004). When in Rome: Heterosexism, homophobia, and sports talk radio. Journal of Sport and Social Issues, 28(2), 136-168.
68. Olugbemi, K. (2004). women and political development in Nigeria since 1960. In A. Agagu & R. Ola (Eds.), Development agenda of the Nigeria State. Fiag (Nigeria) Publishers.
69. Özsoy, S., & Yıldız, K. (2013). Türkiye’deki spor basınında nefret söylemi. International Journal of Social Science Research, 2(2), 46-60.
70. Piñeiro-Otero, T., & Martínez-Rolán, X. (2021). Say it to my face: Analysing hate speech against women on Twitter. Profesional de la Información, 30(5), e300502.
71. Porter, A., Falcon, A., Graefe, B., Metheny, N., Cooper, S., & Astorini, A. (2025). Swipe left on sexual harassment: Understanding and addressing technology-facilitated sexual violence on dating apps. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 40(13- 14), 2964-2983. https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605241265672
72. Powell, A., & Henry, N. (2017). Sexual violence and harassment in the digital era. In A. Deckert & R. Sarre (Eds.), The Palgrave handbook of Australian and New Zealand criminology, crime and justice (pp.205-220). Palgrave Macmillan.
73. Pruchniewska, U. (2019). “A group that’s just women for women”: Feminist affordances of private Facebook groups for professionals. New Media & Society, 21(6), 1362-1379.
74. Richardson-Self, L. (2018). Woman-hating: On misogyny, sexism, and hate speech. Hypatia, 33(2), 256-272.
75. Ridgeway, C. L., & Correll, S. J. (2004). Unpacking the gender system: A theoretical perspective on gender beliefs and social relations. Gender & Society, 18(4), 510-531.
76. Sanderson, J. (2013). From loving the hero to despising the villain: Sports fans, Facebook, and social identity threats. Mass Communication and Society, 16(4), 487-509. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2012.730650
77. Saresma, T., Karkulehto, S., & Varis, P. (2020). Gendered violence online: Hate speech as an intersection of misogyny and racism. In Violence, gender and affect: Interpersonal, institutional and ideological practices (pp.221-243). Springer International Publishing.
78. Sarışın, M. (2022) Toplumsal cinsiyet odaklı dijital şiddet: kadın gazetecilerin Twitter hesapları üzerinden bir inceleme (Yayın No. 788521). [Doktora tezi, Giresun Üniversitesi]. Yükseköğretim Kurulu Başkanlığı Ulusal Tez Merkezi.
79. Shelton, B.A. (1992). Women, men and time: Gender differences in paid work, housework, and leisure. Greenwood Press.
80. Shi, Q. (2023). An overview of the effects of feminist stigmatization on Chinese online platforms: From the media and women's perspectives. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 8, 779-785. https://doi.org/10.54097/ehss. v8i.4355
81. Shklovski, I., & Valtysson, B. (2012). Secretly political: Civic engagement in online publics in Kazakhstan. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 56(3), 417-433. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2012.705196
82. Southworth, C., Finn, J., Shawndell, D., Fraser, C., & Tucker, S. (2007). Intimate partner violence, technology, and stalking. Violence Against Women, 13(8), 842- 856. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801207302045
83. Stainback, K., Kleiner, S., & Skaggs, S. (2016). Women in power: Undoing or redoing the gendered organization?. Gender & Society, 30(1), 109-135.
84. Storer, H.L., & Rodriguez, M. (2020). #Mapping a movement: Social media, feminist hashtags, and movement building in the digital age. Journal of Community Practice, 28(2), 160-176.
85. Suler, J. (2004). The online disinhibition effect. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 7(3), 321-326. https://doi.org/10.1089/1094931041291295
86. Şimşek, A. (2012). Sosyal medyada kamusal alandaki kadına dair söylemler: İTİ- RAF.COM. Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Dergisi, 4(2), 51-61. https://dergipark.org. tr/tr/pub/sobiadsbd/issue/11354/135696
87. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin, & S. Worchel (Eds), The social psychology of intergroup relations. Brooks/Cole.
88. Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1986). The social identity theory of intergroup behaviour. In S. Worchel, & W. G. Austin (Eds), Psychology of intergroup relations. Nelson-Hall.
89. Tannenbaum, C., Ellis, R. P., Eyssel, F., Zou, J., & Schiebinger, L. (2019). Sex and gender analysis improves science and engineering. Nature, 575(7781), 137- 146. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1657-6
90. Toffoletti, K., & Thorpe, H. (2018). Female athletes’ self-representation on social media: A feminist analysis of neoliberal marketing strategies in “economies of visibility”. Feminism & Psychology, 28(1), 11-31.
91. Tokunaga, R. S., & Aune, K. S. (2017). Cyber-defense: A taxonomy of tactics for managing cyberstalking. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 32(10), 1451-1475.
92. Tuchman, G. (1978). Making news: A study in the construction of reality. Free Press.
93. Tuchman, G. (2000). The symbolic annihilation of women by the mass media. In Culture and politics: A reader (pp. 150-174). Palgrave Macmillan US.
94. Turley, E., & Fisher, J. (2018). Tweeting back while shouting back: Social media and feminist activism. Feminism & Psychology, 28(1), 128-132. https://doi. org/10.1177/0959353517715875
95. UNDP. (2022, 2 Mart). Turkey’s performance on gender equality lags behind its advances in human development, UNDP study shows. https://www.undp.org/ turkiye/press-releases/turkeys-performance-gender-equality-lags-behind-its-advances- human-development-undp-study-shows
96. Walton, S.J. (2012). Anti-feminism and misogyny in Breivik’s “Manifesto”. NORA- Nordic Journal of Feminist and Gender Research, 20(1), 4-11. https://doi.org /10.1080/08038740.2011.650707
97. Wanniarachchi, V. U., Mathrani, A., Susnjak, T., & Scogings, C. (2019). Gendered objectification of weight stigma in social media: a mixed method analysis. Proceedings of Australasian Conference on Information Systems 2019, 39, 362- 372. https://aisel.aisnet.org/acis2019
98. Wanniarachchi, V. U., Scogings, C., Susnjak, T., & Mathrani, A. (2022). Fat stigma and body objectification: A text analysis approach using social media content. Digital Health, 8, 1-14.
99. West, C., & Zimmerman, D. H. (1987). Doing gender. Gender & Society, 1(2), 125-151.
100. Wiryawan, W., & Sutantri, S. (2023). Cyber bullyingin social media against the stigma of Indonesian women’s beauty standards. International Journal of Education, Information Technology, and Others, 6(2), 233-244.
101. Wood, W., & Eagly, A.H. (2002). A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: Implications for the origins of sex differences. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 699-727. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.128.5.699
102. Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2015). Two traditions of research on gender identity. Sex Roles, 73, 461-473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-015-0480-2
103. Yardım, G., & Doğruel, H. (2019). Eleştirel söylem çözümlemesi bağlamında haber metinlerinin incelenmesi: Pippa Bacca cinayeti örneği. Erciyes İletişim Dergisi, 6(1), 137-148. https://doi.org/10.17680/erciyesiletisim.516124
104. Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2018). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (11. baskı). Seçkin Yayıncılık.