Managing seasonality in tourism

Öz

Seasonality is usually recognized as a problem of tourism that has many negative consequences for the private and public sectors. The widespread impact of seasonality on tourism has increased the importance of understanding how these sectors can sustainably respond to such a phenomenon. This paper aims to examine the industry and government responses to seasonality. It specifically seeks to discover what responses the literature on tourism addresses to managing the problem of seasonality. The review indicates that tourism businesses and governments mainly respond to seasonality by developing strategies to tackle it when seen as a substantial problem or otherwise adapting to it. The literature points to various strategies for tackling seasonality in tourism. Common strategies include reducing demand in the peak season, increasing demand outside the peak season, reducing supply, increasing supply in the peak season, redistributing demand and supply, extending the main season, establishing additional seasons, diversification of the product mix and the markets, applying marketing campaigns and targeted advertising, using differential pricing, public sector incentives, development of urban, cultural, business, congress, religious, sports and winter tourism, and other alternatives, developing special-interest tourism, encouraging domestic tourism in the off-season, staggering the main school and industrial holidays over a longer period, and two-center holidays.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Tourism
• Seasonality
• Seasonal Demand
• Responses to Seasonality
• Strategies for Tackling Seasonality

Turizmde mevsimselliğin yönetimi

Öz

Mevsimsellik, turizmde genellikle özel ve kamu sektörleri için pek çok olumsuz sonucu olan bir sorun olarak kabul edilmektedir. Mevsimselliğin turizm üzerindeki yaygın etkisi, bu sektörlerin böyle bir olguya sürdürülebilir bir şekilde nasıl yanıt verebileceğini anlamanın önemini artırmıştır. Bu makale, endüstrinin ve hükümetlerin mevsimselliğe verdiği tepkileri incelemektedir. Özellikle, turizm literatürünün mevsimsellik sorununun yönetimine yönelik hangi tepkilere işaret ettiğini ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. Literatür incelemesi, turizm işletmeleri ve hükümetlerin, mevsimselliği önemli bir sorun olarak gördüğünde onunla başa çıkmak için stratejiler geliştirerek veya bunun dışında ona uyum sağlayarak yanıt verdiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Literatür, turizmde mevsimsellikle mücadele için çeşitli stratejilere işaret etmektedir. Yaygın stratejiler, yoğun sezonda talebi azaltmak, yoğun sezon dışında talebi artırmak, arzı azaltmak, yoğun sezonda arzı artırmak, talep ve arzı yeniden dağıtmak, ana sezonu uzatmak, ek sezonlar oluşturmak, ürün karmasını ve pazarları çeşitlendirmek, pazarlama kampanyaları ve hedefli reklamlar uygulamak, farklılaştırılmış fiyatlandırma, kamu teşvikleri kullanmak, şehir, kültür, iş, kongre, dini, spor ve kış turizmini ve diğer alternatifleri geliştirmek, özel ilgi turizmini geliştirmek, sezon dışı iç turizmi teşvik etmek, okul ve sanayi tatillerini daha uzun bir döneme yaymak ve iki merkezli tatiller geliştirmektir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Turizm
• Mevsimsellik
• Mevsimsel Talep
• Mevsimselliğin Yönetimi
• Mevsimselliğe Tepkiler
• Mevsimsellikle Mücadele Stratejileri

Kaynakça

1. Adler, P. A., & Adler, P. (2003). Seasonality and flexible labor in resorts: Organizations, employees, and local labor markets. Sociological Spectrum, 23(1), 59-89. https://doi.org/10.1080/02732170309208
2. Allcock, J. B. (1995). Seasonality. In S. F. Witt & L. Moutinho (Eds.), Tourism marketing and management handbook (pp. 92-104). Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall.
3. Amelung, B., Nicholls, S., & Viner, D. (2007). Implications of global climate change for tourism flows and seasonality. Journal of Travel Research, 45(3), 285-296. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287506295937
4. Andriotis, K. (2005). Seasonality in Crete: Problem or a way of life. Tourism Economics, 11(2), 207-224. https://doi.org/10.5367/0000000054183478
5. Ashworth, J., & Thomas, B. (1999). Patterns of seasonality in employment in tourism in the UK. Applied Economics Letters, 6(11), 735-739. https://doi.org/10.1080/135048599352312
6. Ball, R. (1989). Some aspects of tourism, seasonality and local labour markets. Area, 21(1), 35-45.
7. Bar-On, R. R. (1999). The measurement of seasonality and its economic impacts. Tourism Economics, 5(4), 437-458. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1177/135481669900500409
8. Baum, T., & Hagen, L. (1999). Responses to seasonality: The experiences of peripheral destinations. International Journal of Tourism Research, 1(5), 299-312. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1522- 1970(199909/10)1:5%3C299::AID-JTR198%3E3.0.CO;2-L

9. Baum, T., & Lundtorp, S. (2001). Seasonality in tourism: An introduction. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 1-4). The Netherlands: Pergamon.
10. Bender, O., Schumacher, K. P., & Stein, D. (2005). Measuring seasonality in Central Europe’s tourism: How and for what 10th International Conference on Information & Communication Technologies (ICT) in Urban Planning and Spatial Development and Impacts of ICT on Physical Space, Wien, Austria.
11. Bigovic, M. (2011). Quantifying seasonality in tourism: A case study of Montenegro. Academica Turistica: Tourism & Innovation Journal, 4(2), 15-32.
12. Bischoff, E. E., & Koenig‐Lewis, N. (2007). VFR tourism: The importance of university students as hosts. International Journal of Tourism Research, 9(6), 465-484. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.618
13. Boffa, F., & Succurro, M. (2012). The impact of search cost reduction on seasonality. Annals of Tourism Research, 39(2), 1176-1198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2012.01.006
14. Butler, R. (1998). Seasonality in tourism: Issues and implications. The Tourist Review, 53(3), 18-24. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb058278
15. Butler, R. (2001). Seasonality in tourism: Issues and implications. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 5-21). The Netherlands: Pergamon.
16. Calantone, R. J., & Johar, J. S. (1984). Seasonal segmentation of the tourism market using a benefit segmentation framework. Journal of Travel Research, 23(2), 14-24. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728758402300203
17. Cannas, R. (2012). An overview of Tourism Seasonality: Key concepts and policy. AlmaTourism, 3(5), 40-58. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2036-5195/3120
18. Chiriko, A. Y. (2021). How hotels suffer from and deal with the economic effects of tourism seasonality: A case study of Aksum, Ethiopia. Research in Hospitality Management, 11(2), 137-143. https://doi.org/10.1080/22243534.2021.1917751
19. Chung, J. Y. (2009). Seasonality in tourism: A review. E-review of Tourism Research, 7(5), 82-96.
20. Cisneros-Martinez, J. D., McCabe, S., & Fernández-Morales, A. (2018). The contribution of social tourism to sustainable tourism: A case study of seasonally adjusted programmes in Spain. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 26(1), 85-107. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669582.2017.1319844
21. Commons, J., & Page, S. (2001). Managing seasonality in peripheral tourism regions: The case of Northland, New Zealand. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 153-172). The Netherlands: Pergamon.
22. Commons, J. S. (1999). An exploration of tourism, seasonality, and market development in Northland, New Zealand [Master's thesis, Massey University]. Albany, New Zealand.
23. Connell, J., Page, S. J., & Meyer, D. (2015). Visitor attractions and events: Responding to seasonality. Tourism Management, 46, 283-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.06.013
24. Cook, R. A., Hsu, C. H. C., & Taylor, L. L. (2018). Tourism: The business of hospitality and travel. Malaysia: Pearson.
25. Cooper, C., Fletcher, J., Gilbert, D., Fyall, A., & Wanhill, S. (2005). Tourism: Principles and practice. Milan: Pearson.
26. Corluka, G. (2019). Tourism seasonality: An overview. Journal of Business Paradigms, 4(1), 21-43.
27. Coshall, J., Charlesworth, R., & Page, S. J. (2015). Seasonality of overseas tourism demand in Scotland: A regional analysis. Regional Studies, 49(10), 1603-1620. https://doi.org/10.1080/00343404.2013.859666
28. Cuccia, T., & Rizzo, I. (2011). Tourism seasonality in cultural destinations: Empirical evidence from Sicily. Tourism Management, 32, 589-595. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2010.05.008
29. Duro, J. A. (2016). Seasonality of hotel demand in the main Spanish provinces: Measurements and decomposition exercises. Tourism Management, 52, 52-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2015.06.013
30. Duro, J. A., & Turrion-Prats, J. (2019). Tourism seasonality worldwide. Tourism Management Perspectives, 31, 38-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2019.03.010
31. Duro, J. A., & Turrion-Prats, J. (2022). Seasonality and the contribution of markets: Comparing methods. Tourism Management Perspectives, 43, 100987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tmp.2022.100987
32. Dwyer, L., Forsyth, P., & Dwyer, W. (2020). Tourism economics and policy. United Kingdom: Channel View Publications.
33. Edgell, D. L., Allen, M. D., Smith, G., & Swanson, J. (2011). Tourism policy and planning: Yesterday, today, and tomorrow. New York: Routledge.
34. Esteve-Perez, J., & Garcia-Sanchez, A. (2017). Characteristics and consequences of the cruise traffic seasonality on ports: The Spanish Mediterranean case. Maritime Policy & Management, 44(3), 358-372. https://doi.org/10.1080/03088839.2017.1295326
35. Fernandez-Morales, A. (2003). Decomposing seasonal concentration. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(4), 942-956. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(03)00090-2
36. Ferrante, M., Magno, G. L. L., & De Cantis, S. (2018). Measuring tourism seasonality across European countries. Tourism Management, 68, 220-235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.03.015
37. Figini, P., & Vici, L. (2012). Off-season tourists and the cultural offer of a mass-tourism destination: The case of Rimini. Tourism Management, 33(4), 825-839. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2011.09.005
38. Fitzpatrick Associates. (1993). All-season tourism: Analysis of experience, suitable products, and clientele. Luxembourg: Directorate-General XXIII—Tourism Unit, Commission of the European Communities.
39. Fletcher, J., Fyall, A., Gilbert, D., & Wanhill, S. (2018). Tourism: Principles and practice. Slovakia: Pearson.
40. Flognfeldt, T. (2001). Long-term positive adjustments to seasonality: Consequences of summer tourism in the Jotunheimen area, Norway. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 109-117). The Netherlands: Pergamon.
41. Frechtling, D. C. (1996). Practical tourism forecasting. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Ltd.
42. Garau‐Vadell, J. B., & de Borja‐Sole, L. (2008). Golf in mass tourism destinations facing seasonality: A longitudinal study. Tourism Review, 63(2), 16-24. https://doi.org/10.1108/16605370810883914
43. Getz, D., & Nilsson, P. A. (2004). Responses of family businesses to extreme seasonality in demand: The case of Bornholm, Denmark. Tourism Management, 25(1), 17-30. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(03)00067-0
44. Goeldner, C. R., Brent Ritchie, J. R., & McIntosh, R. W. (2000). Tourism principles, practices, philosophies. United States of America: John Wiley & Sons.
45. Goulding, P. (2005). Seasonality: The perennial challenge for visitor attractions. In A. Fyall, B. Garrod, & A. Leask (Eds.), Managing Visitor Attractions: New directions (pp. 140-158). Oxford: Elsevier Butterworh- Heinemann.
46. Goulding, P. J., Baum, T. G., & Morrison, A. J. (2005). Seasonal trading and lifestyle motivation: Experiences of small tourism businesses in Scotland. Journal of Quality Assurance in Hospitality & Tourism, 5(2-4), 209-238. https://doi.org/10.1300/J162v05n02_11
47. Grossi, L., & Mussini, M. (2021). Seasonality in tourist flows: Decomposing and testing changes in seasonal concentration. Tourism Management, 84, 104289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104289
48. Halpern, N. (2012). Measurement and decomposition of seasonal demand for tourism in Norway. 11th Global Forum on Tourism Statistics, Reykjavík, Iceland.
49. Hinch, T. D., & Jackson, E. L. (2000). Leisure constraints research: Its value as a framework for understanding tourism seasonability. Current Issues in Tourism, 3(2), 87-106. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500008667868
50. Holloway, J. C., Humphreys, C., & Davidson, R. (2009). The business of tourism. Italy: FT Prentice Hall.
51. Hudson, S., & Cross, P. (2005). Sports destinations: Dealing with seasonality. In J. Higham (Ed.), Sport tourism destinations: Issues, opportunities, and analysis (pp. 188-204). Great Britain: Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
52. Jang, S. S. (2004). Mitigating tourism seasonality: A quantitative approach. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(4), 819-836. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2004.02.007
53. Jeffrey, D., & Barden, R. R. (2001). An analysis of the nature, causes, and marketing implications of seasonality in the occupancy performance of English hotels. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in Tourism (pp. 119-140). The Netherlands: Pergamon.
54. Jeffrey, D., & Barden, R. R. D. (2000). An analysis of daily occupancy performance: A basis for effective hotel marketing. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 12(3), 179-189. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596110010320715
55. Jolliffe, L., & Farnsworth, R. (2003). Seasonality in tourism employment: Human resource challenges. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 15(6), 312-316. https://doi.org/10.1108/09596110310488140
56. Karamustafa, K., & Ulama, S. (2010). Measuring the seasonality in tourism with the comparison of different methods. EuroMed Journal of Business, 5(2), 191-214. https://doi.org/10.1108/14502191011065509
57. Kastenholz, E., & Lopes de Almeida, A. (2008). Seasonality in rural tourism: The case of North Portugal. Tourism review, 63(2), 5-15. https://doi.org/10.1108/16605370810883905
58. Kastenholz, E., & Lopes de Almeida, A. (2013). Analyzing seasonal differences in a destination’s tourist market: The case of Minho. 5th Advances in Tourism Marketing Conference Proceedings, Algarve, Portugal.
59. Kennedy, E., & Deegan, J. (2001). Seasonality in Irish tourism: 1973-1995. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in Tourism (pp. 51-74). The Netherlands: Pergamon.
60. Koc, E., & Altinay, G. (2007). An analysis of seasonality in monthly per person tourist spending in Turkish inbound tourism from a market segmentation perspective. Tourism Management, 28(1), 227-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2006.01.003
61. Koenig-Lewis, N., & Bischoff, E. E. (2010). Developing effective strategies for tackling seasonality in the tourism industry. Tourism and Hospitality Planning & Development, 7(4), 395-413. https://doi.org/10.1080/1479053X.2010.520466
62. Koenig‐Lewis, N., & Bischoff, E. E. (2005). Seasonality research: The state of the art. International Journal of Tourism Research, 7(4‐5), 201-219. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.531
63. Koenig, N. (2004). Analysing seasonal tourism demand variations in Wales. [Doctoral dissertation, Swansea University]. United Kingdom. Retrieved from http://cronfa.swan.ac.uk/Record/cronfa43054
64. Krakover, S. (2000). Partitioning seasonal employment in the hospitality industry. Tourism Management, 21, 461-471. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-5177(99)00101-6
65. Lee-Ross, D., & Pryce, J. (2010). Human resources and tourism: Skills, culture and industry. Great Britain: Channel View Publications.
66. Lee, C., Bergin-Seers, S., Galloway, G., O'Mahony, B., & McMurray, A. (2008). Seasonality in the tourism industry: Impacts and strategies. Australia: CRC for Sustainable Tourism.
67. Lim, C., & McAleer, M. (2001). Monthly seasonal variations: Asian tourism to Australia. Annals of Tourism Research, 28(1), 68-82. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0160-7383(00)00002-5
68. Lim, C., & McAleer, M. (2008). Analysing seasonal changes in New Zealand's largest inbound market. Tourism Recreation Research, 33(1), 83-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2008.11081292
69. Lopes de Almeida, A., & Kastenholz, E. (2019). Towards a theoretical model of seasonal tourist consumption behaviour. Tourism Planning & Development, 16(5), 533-555. https://doi.org/10.1080/21568316.2018.1528564
70. Lozano, J., Rey-Maquieira, J., & Sastre, F. (2021). An integrated analysis of tourism seasonality in prices and quantities, with an application to the Spanish hotel industry. Journal of Travel Research, 60(7), 1581-1597. https://doi.org/10.1177/0047287520947807
71. Lundtorp, S., Rassing, C. R., & Wanhill, S. (1999). The off-season is no season: The case of the Danish island of Bornholm. Tourism Economics, 5(1), 49-68. https://doi.org/10.1177/135481669900500104
72. Lundtorp, S., Rassing, C. R., & Wanhill, S. (2001). Off-season is no season: The case of Bornholm. In T. Baum & S. Lundtorp (Eds.), Seasonality in tourism (pp. 89-108). The Netherlands: Pergamon.
73. Manning, R. E., & Powers, L. A. (1984). Peak and off-peak use: Redistributing the outdoor recreation/tourism load. Journal of Travel Research, 23(2), 25-31. https://doi.org/10.1177/004728758402300204
74. Martin, J. M. M., Aguilera, J. D. D. J., & Moreno, V. M. (2014). Impacts of seasonality on environmental sustainability in the tourism sector based on destination type: An application to Spain's Andalusia region. Tourism Economics, 20(1), 123-142. https://doi.org/10.5367/te.2013.0256
75. Martinez, J. M. G., Martin, J. M. M., & Rey, M. d. S. O. (2020). An analysis of the changes in the seasonal patterns of tourist behavior during a process of economic recovery. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 161, 120280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120280
76. Mitchell, R. D., & Hall, C. M. (2003). Seasonality in New Zealand winery visitation: An issue of demand and supply. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 14(3-4), 155-173. https://doi.org/10.1300/J073v14n03_09
77. Moller, C., Weiermair, K., & Wintersberger, E. (2007). The changing travel behaviour of Austria’s ageing population and its impact on tourism. Tourism Review, 62(3/4), 15-20. https://doi.org/10.1108/16605370780000316
78. Nadal, J. R., Font, A. R., & Rossello, A. S. (2004). The economic determinants of seasonal patterns. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(3), 697-711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2004.02.001
79. Parrilla, J. C., Font, A. R., & Nadal, J. R. (2007). Accommodation determinants of seasonal patterns. Annals of Tourism Research, 34(2), 422-436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2006.10.002
80. Pegg, S., Patterson, I., & Gariddo, P. V. (2012). The impact of seasonality on tourism and hospitality operations in the alpine region of New South Wales, Australia. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(3), 659-666. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2011.09.001
81. Petrevska, B. (2013). A simple test for the presence of seasonality in tourism in Macedonia 1st International Conference Regional Economic Cooperation in the process of Globalization, Tetovo, Macedonia.
82. Radlinska, K., & Gardziejewska, B. (2022). The seasonal labor hoarding in tourist enterprises: Choice or necessity. Sustainability, 14(12), 6995. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14126995
83. Ramos, L. M., & Sol Murta, F. (2022). Tourism seasonality management strategies: What can we learn from payment data. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Insights. https://doi.org/10.1108/JHTI-12-2021-0337
84. Rodrigue, J. P., & Notteboom, T. (2012). The cruise industry: Itineraries, not destinations. Port Technology International, 54, 13-16. Retrieved from https://wpassets.porttechnology.org/wp- content/uploads/2019/05/25181950/013-016.pdf
85. Rodrigue, J. P., & Notteboom, T. (2013). The geography of cruises: Itineraries, not destinations. Applied Geography, 38, 31-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2012.11.011
86. Rossello, J., & Sanso, A. (2017). Yearly, monthly and weekly seasonality of tourism demand: A decomposition analysis. Tourism Management, 60, 379-389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.12.019
87. Rowley, J., & Slack, F. (2004). Conducting a literature review Management Research News, 27(6), 31-39. https://doi.org/10.1108/01409170410784185
88. Sasser, W. E. (1976). Match supply and demand in service industries. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from https://hbr.org/1976/11/match-supply-and-demand-in-service-industries
89. Seaton, A. V. (1995). Promotional strategies. In S. F. Witt & L. Moutinho (Eds.), Tourism marketing and management handbook (pp. 376-387). Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall.
90. Senyao, S., Wei, H., & Ma, N. (2021). How off-season tourism promotion affects seasonal destinations: A multi- stakeholder perspective in Tibet. Tourism Review, 76(1), 229-240. https://doi.org/10.1108/TR-04-2019-0123
91. Smith, K. (1993). The influence of weather and climate on recreation and tourism. Weather, 48(12), 398-404. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1477-8696.1993.tb05828.x
92. Stojcic, N., Mikulic, J., & Vizek, M. (2022). High season, low growth: The impact of tourism seasonality and vulnerability to tourism on the emergence of high-growth firms. Tourism Management, 89, 104455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104455
93. Sutcliffe, C. M. S., & Sinclair, M. T. (1980). The measurement of seasonality within the tourist industry: an application to tourist arrivals in Spain. Applied Economics, 12(4), 429-441. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036848000000004
94. Swarbrooke, J., & Horner, S. (2001). Business travel and tourism. Abingdon: Routledge.
95. Turrion-Prats, J., & Duro, J. A. (2017). Tourist seasonality in Catalonia: The relevance of demand factors. Tourism Economics, 23(4), 846-853. https://doi.org/10.5367/te.2016.0543
96. Turrion-Prats, J., & Duro, J. A. (2018). Tourist seasonality and the role of markets. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 8, 23-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdmm.2016.11.004
97. Turrion‐Prats, J., & Duro, J. A. (2019). Seasonality determinants for the main markets in Spain. International Journal of Tourism Research, 21(4), 462-477. https://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.2275
98. Vergori, A. S. (2017). Patterns of seasonality and tourism demand forecasting. Tourism Economics, 23(5), 1011- 1027. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816616656418
99. Wall, G., & Mathieson, A. (2006). Tourism: change, impacts, and opportunities. Harlow: Pearson.
100. Weaver, D. B., & Lawton, L. (2010). Tourism management. Australia: Wiey.
101. World Tourism Organization. (2023a). News Release. Retrieved from https://webunwto.s3.eu-west- 1.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/2023-05/230509-unwto-barometer-en.pdf? VersionId=qnXbkRl9aKghFCaBed_QKciTe68XKsGQ
102. World Tourism Organization. (2023b). UNWTO 2022: A Year in Review. Retrieved from https://www.unwto.org/unwto-2022-a-year-review
103. Xie, J. (2020). The economic determinants of tourism seasonality: A case study of the Norwegian tourism industry. Cogent Business & Management, 7(1), 1732111. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2020.1732111
104. Zvaigzne, A., Litavniece, L., & Dembovska, I. (2022). Tourism seasonality: The causes and effects. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 14(5), 421-430. https://doi.org/10.1108/WHATT-07-2022-0080