Araştırma Makalesi
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

Yıl 2026, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1 , 167 - 175 , 30.04.2026
https://doi.org/10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271
https://izlik.org/JA82YL86YT

Öz

Kaynakça

  • 1. Ashtankar, K. M., Kuthe, A. M., Rathour, B. S. “Effect of build orientation on mechanical properties of rapid prototyping (fused deposition modeling) made acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) parts”, Proceedings of the ASME 2013 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Pages 1-7, San Diego, California, USA, 2013.
  • 2. Świderski, J., Makiela, W., Dobrowolski, T., Stepien, K., Zuperl, U., “The study of the roundness and cylindricity deviations of parts produced with the use of the additive manufacturing”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 121, Issue 11-12, Pages 7427-7437, 2022.
  • 3. Yadav, D. K., Srivastava, R., Dev, S., “Design & fabrication of ABS part by FDM for automobile application”, 10th International Conference on Materials Processing and Characterization, Pages 2089–2093, Hyderabad, 2019.
  • 4. Kıran, K., Şekerci, B., Urgancı, KB., Delikanlı, YE., Gezgen, B., “Endüstriyel bir 3 boyutlu yazıcı ile imal edilen ABS malzemeli parçaların boyut hatalarının incelenmesi”, Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, Cilt 12, Sayı 4, Sayfa 1046-1057, 2022.
  • 5. Bahnini, I., Zaman, UK., Rivette, M., Bonnet, N., Siadat, A., “Computer-aided design (CAD) compensation through modeling of shrinkage in additively manufactured parts”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 106, Issue 10, Pages 3999-4009, 2020.
  • 6. Sajan, N., John, TD., Sivadasan, M., Singh, NK., “An investigation on circularity error of components processed on fused deposition modeling (FDM)”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol 5, Issue 1, Pages 1327-1334, 2018.
  • 7. Knoop, F., Schoeppner, V., “Geometrical accuracy of holes and cylinders manufactures with fused deposition modeling”, Solid Freeform Fabrication 2017: Proceedings of the 28th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, Pages 2757-2776, Austin, 2017.
  • 8. ISO 1101:2012(E), “Geometrical product specifications (GPS)-geometrical tolerancing-tolerances of form, orientation, location and run-out”, Pages 97-98, International Organisation for Standardization, Geneva, 2012.
  • 9. Reyes-Rodriguez, A., Dorado-Vicente, R., Mayor-Vicario, R., “Dimensional and form errors of PC parts printed via fused deposition modelling”, Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017, Pages 880-887, Vigo (Pontevedra), 2017.
  • 10. Eswaran, P., Sivakumar, K., Subramaniyan, M., “Minimizing error on circularity of FDM manufactured part”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 5, Issue 2, Pages 6675-6683, 2018.
  • 11. Minetola, P., Iuliano, L., Marchiandi, G., “Benchmarking of FDM machines through part quality using IT grades”, 48th CIRP Conference on MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS – CIRP CMS 2015, Pages 1027-1032, Ischia, 2016.
  • 12. Kıran, K., “Performance evaluation of a conjugate gradient method considering step length computation techniques in geometry fitting of coordinate measuring”, Measurement, Vol. 196, Pages 1-9, Issue 9, 2022.
  • 13. Yaman, U., “Shrinkage compensation of holes via shrinkage of interior structure in FDM process”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 94, Issue 7, Pages 2187-2197, 2018.
  • 14. Bähr, F., Westkämper, E., “Correlations between influencing parameters and quality properties of components produced by fused deposition modeling”, 51st CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Systems, Pages 1214-1219, Stockholm, 2018.
  • 15. Hämäläinen, J. P., “Semi-crystalline polyolefins in fused deposition modeling”, Yüksek lisans tezi, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, 2017.
  • 16. Equbal, A., Murmu, R., Kumar, V., Equbal, M.A., “A recent review on advancements in dimensional accuracy in fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing”, AIMS Material Science, Vol. 11, Issue 5, Pages 950-990, 2024.
  • 17. Sukindar, N.A., Yasir, A.S.H., Azhar, M.D., Sulaiman, M.H., Sabli, A.S.H.A., Ariffin, M.K.A.M., “Evaluation of the surface roughness and dimensional accuracy of low-cost 3d-printed parts made of PLA–aluminum”, Heliyon, Vol. 10, Issue 4, e25508, 2024.
  • 18. Haldar, B., “Enhancing dimensional accuracy in budget-friendly 3d printing through solid model geometry tuning and its use in rapid casting”, Machines, Vol. 11, Issue 11, Pages 1-18, 2023.
  • 19. Şeker, S., Erdinler, E.S., “3b baskı sürecinde tarama açısı ve doluluk oranının boyutsal uygunluğa etkisi: abs malzeme üzerine bir çalışma”, Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 27, Sayı 2, Sayfa 303-311, 2025.

CHARACTERIZATION OF DIMENSIONAL DEVIATION AND CIRCULARITY IN ABS SAMPLES PRODUCED WITH FUSED DEPOSITION MODELING

Yıl 2026, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1 , 167 - 175 , 30.04.2026
https://doi.org/10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271
https://izlik.org/JA82YL86YT

Öz

In additive manufacturing processes, dimensional accuracy of parts is among the fundamental challenges encountered. Errors related to the positioning accuracy of the device, shrinkage and warping behaviors occurring during manufacturing, and geometric deviations originating from STL (stereolithography) files lead to unwanted dimensional errors in the produced parts, negatively impacting the final product. Each combination of the device used, the material, the manufacturing parameters, and the geometric elements in the model can cause dimensional inconsistencies and circularity errors, especially in parts with cylindrical geometry. Therefore, the quantitative determination and analysis of these errors is very important for both end users and device manufacturers. In this study, the dimensional errors and circularity errors in cylindrical parts produced from ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene) material using the Ender 3 S1 desktop 3D printer were examined. First, cylindrical test parts with 5 different diameters, with fixed wall thicknesses and heights, were designed. Subsequently, they were manufactured using different infill ratios, each positioned separately at the center of the print bed. All manufactured parts were scanned using a coordinate measuring machine to obtain their two-dimensional profiles. The deviation amounts and circularity of the test parts from their design dimensions were determined using the obtained profiles and coordinate data. Evaluation of the results revealed that both dimensional errors and circularity varied depending on the infill ratios and diameters of the parts. Although all manufactured parts were smaller than their design dimensions due to material-related thermal shrinkage, it was observed that this was not the only factor affecting dimensions and circularity; it was also determined that circularity errors in the parts also increased with the increase in infill ratio.

Kaynakça

  • 1. Ashtankar, K. M., Kuthe, A. M., Rathour, B. S. “Effect of build orientation on mechanical properties of rapid prototyping (fused deposition modeling) made acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) parts”, Proceedings of the ASME 2013 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Pages 1-7, San Diego, California, USA, 2013.
  • 2. Świderski, J., Makiela, W., Dobrowolski, T., Stepien, K., Zuperl, U., “The study of the roundness and cylindricity deviations of parts produced with the use of the additive manufacturing”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 121, Issue 11-12, Pages 7427-7437, 2022.
  • 3. Yadav, D. K., Srivastava, R., Dev, S., “Design & fabrication of ABS part by FDM for automobile application”, 10th International Conference on Materials Processing and Characterization, Pages 2089–2093, Hyderabad, 2019.
  • 4. Kıran, K., Şekerci, B., Urgancı, KB., Delikanlı, YE., Gezgen, B., “Endüstriyel bir 3 boyutlu yazıcı ile imal edilen ABS malzemeli parçaların boyut hatalarının incelenmesi”, Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, Cilt 12, Sayı 4, Sayfa 1046-1057, 2022.
  • 5. Bahnini, I., Zaman, UK., Rivette, M., Bonnet, N., Siadat, A., “Computer-aided design (CAD) compensation through modeling of shrinkage in additively manufactured parts”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 106, Issue 10, Pages 3999-4009, 2020.
  • 6. Sajan, N., John, TD., Sivadasan, M., Singh, NK., “An investigation on circularity error of components processed on fused deposition modeling (FDM)”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol 5, Issue 1, Pages 1327-1334, 2018.
  • 7. Knoop, F., Schoeppner, V., “Geometrical accuracy of holes and cylinders manufactures with fused deposition modeling”, Solid Freeform Fabrication 2017: Proceedings of the 28th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, Pages 2757-2776, Austin, 2017.
  • 8. ISO 1101:2012(E), “Geometrical product specifications (GPS)-geometrical tolerancing-tolerances of form, orientation, location and run-out”, Pages 97-98, International Organisation for Standardization, Geneva, 2012.
  • 9. Reyes-Rodriguez, A., Dorado-Vicente, R., Mayor-Vicario, R., “Dimensional and form errors of PC parts printed via fused deposition modelling”, Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017, Pages 880-887, Vigo (Pontevedra), 2017.
  • 10. Eswaran, P., Sivakumar, K., Subramaniyan, M., “Minimizing error on circularity of FDM manufactured part”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 5, Issue 2, Pages 6675-6683, 2018.
  • 11. Minetola, P., Iuliano, L., Marchiandi, G., “Benchmarking of FDM machines through part quality using IT grades”, 48th CIRP Conference on MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS – CIRP CMS 2015, Pages 1027-1032, Ischia, 2016.
  • 12. Kıran, K., “Performance evaluation of a conjugate gradient method considering step length computation techniques in geometry fitting of coordinate measuring”, Measurement, Vol. 196, Pages 1-9, Issue 9, 2022.
  • 13. Yaman, U., “Shrinkage compensation of holes via shrinkage of interior structure in FDM process”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 94, Issue 7, Pages 2187-2197, 2018.
  • 14. Bähr, F., Westkämper, E., “Correlations between influencing parameters and quality properties of components produced by fused deposition modeling”, 51st CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Systems, Pages 1214-1219, Stockholm, 2018.
  • 15. Hämäläinen, J. P., “Semi-crystalline polyolefins in fused deposition modeling”, Yüksek lisans tezi, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, 2017.
  • 16. Equbal, A., Murmu, R., Kumar, V., Equbal, M.A., “A recent review on advancements in dimensional accuracy in fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing”, AIMS Material Science, Vol. 11, Issue 5, Pages 950-990, 2024.
  • 17. Sukindar, N.A., Yasir, A.S.H., Azhar, M.D., Sulaiman, M.H., Sabli, A.S.H.A., Ariffin, M.K.A.M., “Evaluation of the surface roughness and dimensional accuracy of low-cost 3d-printed parts made of PLA–aluminum”, Heliyon, Vol. 10, Issue 4, e25508, 2024.
  • 18. Haldar, B., “Enhancing dimensional accuracy in budget-friendly 3d printing through solid model geometry tuning and its use in rapid casting”, Machines, Vol. 11, Issue 11, Pages 1-18, 2023.
  • 19. Şeker, S., Erdinler, E.S., “3b baskı sürecinde tarama açısı ve doluluk oranının boyutsal uygunluğa etkisi: abs malzeme üzerine bir çalışma”, Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 27, Sayı 2, Sayfa 303-311, 2025.

ERGİYİK BİRİKTİRMELİ EKLEMELİ İMALAT İLE ÜRETİLEN ABS NUMUNELERDE BOYUTSAL SAPMA VE DAİRESELLİK KARAKTERİZASYONU

Yıl 2026, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1 , 167 - 175 , 30.04.2026
https://doi.org/10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271
https://izlik.org/JA82YL86YT

Öz

Eklemeli imalat süreçlerinde parçaların boyutsal doğruluğu, karşılaşılan temel sorunlar arasında yer almaktadır. Cihazın konumlama hassasiyetine bağlı hatalar, imalat sırasında oluşan çekme ve büzülme davranışları ile STL (stereolithography) dosyalarından kaynaklanan geometrik sapmalar, üretilen parçaların boyutlarında istenmeyen hatalara yol açarak son ürünü olumsuz yönde etkilemektedir. Kullanılan cihaz, malzeme, imalat parametreleri ve modeldeki geometrik unsurların birlikte oluşturduğu her bir kombinasyon özellikle silindirik geometriye sahip parçalarda boyutsal tutarsızlık ve dairesel hata karakteristikleri ortaya çıkarabilmektedir. Bu nedenle söz konusu hataların nicel olarak belirlenmesi ve analiz edilmesi hem son kullanıcılar hem de cihaz üreticileri açısından büyük önem taşımaktadır. Bu bağlamda, sunulan çalışmada masaüstü tip üç boyutlu yazıcı Ender 3 S1 kullanılarak ABS (Akrinonitril bütadilen stiren) malzemeden üretilen silindirik parçalardaki boyutsal hatalar ve dairesellik hataları incelenmiştir. Öncelikli olarak, et kalınlıkları ve yükseklikleri sabit olan 5 farklı çapa sahip silindirik test parçaları tasarlanmıştır. Sonrasında farklı doluluk oranları kullanılarak her biri ayrı ayrı baskı plakası merkezine konumlandırılarak imal edilmiştir. İmalatı tamamlanan tüm parçalar koordinat ölçme makinesi ile taranarak iki boyutlu profilleri elde edilmiştir. Elde edilen profiller ve koordinat verileri kullanılarak test parçalarının tasarım boyutlarından sapma miktarları ve dairesellikleri belirlenmiştir. Bulgular değerlendirildiğinde, parçaların doluluk oranlarına ve çaplarına bağlı olarak boyutsal hataların ve daireselliklerin değişkenlik gösterdiği tespit edilmiştir. İmal edilen tüm parçaların tasarım boyutlarından küçük olması parçalardaki malzemeye bağlı termal çekmeden kaynaklanmasına rağmen, boyutları ve daireselliği etkileyen tek faktörün bu olmadığı, doluluk oranlarındaki artışla birlikte parçalardaki dairesellik hatalarının da arttığı belirlenmiştir.

Teşekkür

Deneysel çalışmalar sırasında yardımlarından ötürü Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Yenilikçi Teknolojiler Uygulama ve Araştırma Merkezi (YETEM), Tasarım ve İmalat Biriminde görevli öğretim üyelerine ve teknisyenlere teşekkür ederim.

Kaynakça

  • 1. Ashtankar, K. M., Kuthe, A. M., Rathour, B. S. “Effect of build orientation on mechanical properties of rapid prototyping (fused deposition modeling) made acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) parts”, Proceedings of the ASME 2013 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition, Pages 1-7, San Diego, California, USA, 2013.
  • 2. Świderski, J., Makiela, W., Dobrowolski, T., Stepien, K., Zuperl, U., “The study of the roundness and cylindricity deviations of parts produced with the use of the additive manufacturing”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 121, Issue 11-12, Pages 7427-7437, 2022.
  • 3. Yadav, D. K., Srivastava, R., Dev, S., “Design & fabrication of ABS part by FDM for automobile application”, 10th International Conference on Materials Processing and Characterization, Pages 2089–2093, Hyderabad, 2019.
  • 4. Kıran, K., Şekerci, B., Urgancı, KB., Delikanlı, YE., Gezgen, B., “Endüstriyel bir 3 boyutlu yazıcı ile imal edilen ABS malzemeli parçaların boyut hatalarının incelenmesi”, Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, Cilt 12, Sayı 4, Sayfa 1046-1057, 2022.
  • 5. Bahnini, I., Zaman, UK., Rivette, M., Bonnet, N., Siadat, A., “Computer-aided design (CAD) compensation through modeling of shrinkage in additively manufactured parts”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 106, Issue 10, Pages 3999-4009, 2020.
  • 6. Sajan, N., John, TD., Sivadasan, M., Singh, NK., “An investigation on circularity error of components processed on fused deposition modeling (FDM)”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol 5, Issue 1, Pages 1327-1334, 2018.
  • 7. Knoop, F., Schoeppner, V., “Geometrical accuracy of holes and cylinders manufactures with fused deposition modeling”, Solid Freeform Fabrication 2017: Proceedings of the 28th Annual International Solid Freeform Fabrication Symposium, Pages 2757-2776, Austin, 2017.
  • 8. ISO 1101:2012(E), “Geometrical product specifications (GPS)-geometrical tolerancing-tolerances of form, orientation, location and run-out”, Pages 97-98, International Organisation for Standardization, Geneva, 2012.
  • 9. Reyes-Rodriguez, A., Dorado-Vicente, R., Mayor-Vicario, R., “Dimensional and form errors of PC parts printed via fused deposition modelling”, Manufacturing Engineering Society International Conference 2017, Pages 880-887, Vigo (Pontevedra), 2017.
  • 10. Eswaran, P., Sivakumar, K., Subramaniyan, M., “Minimizing error on circularity of FDM manufactured part”, Materials Today: Proceedings, Vol. 5, Issue 2, Pages 6675-6683, 2018.
  • 11. Minetola, P., Iuliano, L., Marchiandi, G., “Benchmarking of FDM machines through part quality using IT grades”, 48th CIRP Conference on MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS – CIRP CMS 2015, Pages 1027-1032, Ischia, 2016.
  • 12. Kıran, K., “Performance evaluation of a conjugate gradient method considering step length computation techniques in geometry fitting of coordinate measuring”, Measurement, Vol. 196, Pages 1-9, Issue 9, 2022.
  • 13. Yaman, U., “Shrinkage compensation of holes via shrinkage of interior structure in FDM process”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Vol. 94, Issue 7, Pages 2187-2197, 2018.
  • 14. Bähr, F., Westkämper, E., “Correlations between influencing parameters and quality properties of components produced by fused deposition modeling”, 51st CIRP Conference on Manufacturing Systems, Pages 1214-1219, Stockholm, 2018.
  • 15. Hämäläinen, J. P., “Semi-crystalline polyolefins in fused deposition modeling”, Yüksek lisans tezi, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, 2017.
  • 16. Equbal, A., Murmu, R., Kumar, V., Equbal, M.A., “A recent review on advancements in dimensional accuracy in fused deposition modeling (FDM) 3D printing”, AIMS Material Science, Vol. 11, Issue 5, Pages 950-990, 2024.
  • 17. Sukindar, N.A., Yasir, A.S.H., Azhar, M.D., Sulaiman, M.H., Sabli, A.S.H.A., Ariffin, M.K.A.M., “Evaluation of the surface roughness and dimensional accuracy of low-cost 3d-printed parts made of PLA–aluminum”, Heliyon, Vol. 10, Issue 4, e25508, 2024.
  • 18. Haldar, B., “Enhancing dimensional accuracy in budget-friendly 3d printing through solid model geometry tuning and its use in rapid casting”, Machines, Vol. 11, Issue 11, Pages 1-18, 2023.
  • 19. Şeker, S., Erdinler, E.S., “3b baskı sürecinde tarama açısı ve doluluk oranının boyutsal uygunluğa etkisi: abs malzeme üzerine bir çalışma”, Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt 27, Sayı 2, Sayfa 303-311, 2025.
Toplam 19 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Makine Mühendisliği (Diğer)
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Yunus Emre Delikanlı 0000-0002-5647-1755

Gönderilme Tarihi 3 Ocak 2026
Kabul Tarihi 17 Mart 2026
Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Nisan 2026
DOI https://doi.org/10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271
IZ https://izlik.org/JA82YL86YT
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2026 Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Delikanlı, Y. E. (2026). ERGİYİK BİRİKTİRMELİ EKLEMELİ İMALAT İLE ÜRETİLEN ABS NUMUNELERDE BOYUTSAL SAPMA VE DAİRESELLİK KARAKTERİZASYONU. International Journal of 3D Printing Technologies and Digital Industry, 10(1), 167-175. https://doi.org/10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271
AMA 1.Delikanlı YE. ERGİYİK BİRİKTİRMELİ EKLEMELİ İMALAT İLE ÜRETİLEN ABS NUMUNELERDE BOYUTSAL SAPMA VE DAİRESELLİK KARAKTERİZASYONU. IJ3DPTDI. 2026;10(1):167-175. doi:10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271
Chicago Delikanlı, Yunus Emre. 2026. “ERGİYİK BİRİKTİRMELİ EKLEMELİ İMALAT İLE ÜRETİLEN ABS NUMUNELERDE BOYUTSAL SAPMA VE DAİRESELLİK KARAKTERİZASYONU”. International Journal of 3D Printing Technologies and Digital Industry 10 (1): 167-75. https://doi.org/10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271.
EndNote Delikanlı YE (01 Nisan 2026) ERGİYİK BİRİKTİRMELİ EKLEMELİ İMALAT İLE ÜRETİLEN ABS NUMUNELERDE BOYUTSAL SAPMA VE DAİRESELLİK KARAKTERİZASYONU. International Journal of 3D Printing Technologies and Digital Industry 10 1 167–175.
IEEE [1]Y. E. Delikanlı, “ERGİYİK BİRİKTİRMELİ EKLEMELİ İMALAT İLE ÜRETİLEN ABS NUMUNELERDE BOYUTSAL SAPMA VE DAİRESELLİK KARAKTERİZASYONU”, IJ3DPTDI, c. 10, sy 1, ss. 167–175, Nis. 2026, doi: 10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271.
ISNAD Delikanlı, Yunus Emre. “ERGİYİK BİRİKTİRMELİ EKLEMELİ İMALAT İLE ÜRETİLEN ABS NUMUNELERDE BOYUTSAL SAPMA VE DAİRESELLİK KARAKTERİZASYONU”. International Journal of 3D Printing Technologies and Digital Industry 10/1 (01 Nisan 2026): 167-175. https://doi.org/10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271.
JAMA 1.Delikanlı YE. ERGİYİK BİRİKTİRMELİ EKLEMELİ İMALAT İLE ÜRETİLEN ABS NUMUNELERDE BOYUTSAL SAPMA VE DAİRESELLİK KARAKTERİZASYONU. IJ3DPTDI. 2026;10:167–175.
MLA Delikanlı, Yunus Emre. “ERGİYİK BİRİKTİRMELİ EKLEMELİ İMALAT İLE ÜRETİLEN ABS NUMUNELERDE BOYUTSAL SAPMA VE DAİRESELLİK KARAKTERİZASYONU”. International Journal of 3D Printing Technologies and Digital Industry, c. 10, sy 1, Nisan 2026, ss. 167-75, doi:10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271.
Vancouver 1.Yunus Emre Delikanlı. ERGİYİK BİRİKTİRMELİ EKLEMELİ İMALAT İLE ÜRETİLEN ABS NUMUNELERDE BOYUTSAL SAPMA VE DAİRESELLİK KARAKTERİZASYONU. IJ3DPTDI. 01 Nisan 2026;10(1):167-75. doi:10.46519/ij3dptdi.1855271

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