Effects of Global Warming on Tea Agriculture

Öz

Global warming is a major factor that causes various problems in agricultural areas and agricultural production. In recent years, the effects of global warming on tea cultivation in countries such as China, India, Kenya, Sri Lanka, and Turkey, which are important tea producers in the world, have increased. The degree of impact on world tea cultivation areas occurs in different ways, such as a decrease in tea yield, flooding, soil erosion, and drought. In Turkish tea cultivation areas, it is seen that different levels of effects have begun to occur in tea production depending on the altitudes as a result of changing temperature averages, rainfall amounts, and rainfall irregularity. According to the results of the survey conducted within the scope of this study, it is seen that while yield losses occur in coastal areas and especially in the first flush harvest, it encourages yield increases in the second and third harvests at high altitudes. It is seen that global warming has effects such as flooding stress, drying in flat and close to flat areas, and landslides in sloping areas in our country's tea gardens. In order to reduce the effects of global warming in our country's tea areas, it is necessary to inform tea producers and to take cultural measures to prevent landslides in sloping areas. For permanent solutions, breeding studies should be carried out to develop efficient and resistant varieties for flooding and heat stress, and these should be prioritized in the renewal of our country's tea gardens.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Tea
• global warming
• yield
• quality
• drought

Küresel Isınmanın Çay Tarımına Etkileri

Öz

Küresel ısınma, tarım alanlarında ve tarımsal üretimde çeşitli sorunlara yol açan önemli bir faktördür. Dünyada önemli çay üreticileri olan Çin, Hindistan, Kenya, Sri Lanka ve Türkiye gibi ülkelerdeki çay tarımında küresel ısınma etkileri son zamanlarda artış göstermiştir. Dünya çay tarım alanlarının etkilenme dereceleri çay veriminde azalma, sel ve su baskını, toprak erozyonu, kuraklık gibi farklı şekillerde meydana gelmektedir. Türkiye çay tarım alanlarında da, değişen sıcaklık ortalamaları, yağış miktarı ve yağış düzensizliği sonucunda çay üretiminde rakımlara bağlı olarak farklı düzeylerde etkilerin oluşmaya başladığı görülmektedir. Bu çalışma kapsamında yapılan anket çalışmasının sonuçlarına göre, kıyı kesimlerde ve özellikle ilk sürgün hasatta verim kayıplarının oluşmasına karşın, yüksek rakımlarda ikinci ve üçüncü hasatta verim artışlarını teşvik ettiği görülmektedir. Küresel ısınmanın ülkemiz çay bahçelerinde su baskını stresi, düz ve düze yakın arazilerde kurumalar, eğimli arazilerde ise toprak kaymaları gibi etkiler yaptığı görülmektedir. Ülkemiz çay alanlarında küresel ısınmanın etkilerinin azaltılmasına yönelik olarak, çay üreticilerinin bilgilendirilmesi, eğimli alanlarda toprak kaymasını önleyici kültürel önlemlerin alınması gerekmektedir. Kalıcı çözümler için, ıslah çalışmalarıyla, su baskını ve sıcaklık stresine yönelik verimli ve dayanıklı çeşitlerin geliştirilmesi ve bunların ülkemiz çay bahçelerinin yenilenmesinde öncelikle kullanılması sağlanmalıdır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Çay
• küresel ısınma
• verim
• kalite
• kuraklık

Kaynakça

1. Ahmed, S., Stepp, J. R., Orians, C., Griffin, T., Matyas, C., Robbat, A., Cash, S., Xue, D., Long, C., Unachukwu, U., Buckley, S., Small, D., & Kennelly, E. (2014). Effects of extreme climate events on tea (Camellia sinensis) functional quality validate indigenous farmer knowledge and sensory preferences in tropical China. Plos One, 9(10), e109126. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0109126
2. Ahmed, S., Griffin, T. S., Kraner, D., Schaffner, M. K., Sharma, D., Hazel, M., Leitch, A. R., Orians, C. M., Han, W., Stepp, J. R., Robbat, A., Matyas, C., Long, C., Xue, D., Houser, R. F., & Cash S. B. (2019). Environmental factors variably impact tea secondary metabolites in the context of climate change. Frontiers in Plant Science, 10(939). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00939
3. Anjum, S. A., Xie, X., Wang, L., Saleem, M. F., Man, C., & Lei, W. (2011). Morphological, physiological and biochemical responses of plants to drought stres. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 6(9), 2026-2032. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJAR10.027
4. Azapagic, A., Bore, J., Cheserek, B., Kamunya, S., & Elbehri, A. (2016). The global warming potential of production and consumption of Kenyan tea. Journal of Cleaner Production, 112, 4031–4040. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.07.029
5. Baruah, P., & Handique, G. (2021) Perception of climate change and adaptation strategies in tea plantations of Assam, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 193, 165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-08937-y
6. Beringer, T., Kulak, M., Müller, C., Schaphoff, S., & Jans, Y. (2020). First process-based simulations of climate change ımpacts on global tea production ındicate large effects in the world’s major producer countries. Environmental Research Letters, 15, 034023. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ab649b
7. Bhagat, R., Ahmed, K. Z., Gupta, N., Baruah, R. D., Wijeratne, M. A., Bore, J. K., Nyabundi, D. W., Han, W., Li, X., Yan, P., & Ahammed, G. J. (2016) Report of the Working Group on Climate Change of the FAO Intergovernmental Group on Tea; Technical Report for Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome, Italy. https://www.fao.org/3/i5743e/i5743e.pdf
8. Biggs, E. M., Gupta, N., Saikia, S. D., & Duncan, J. M. A. (2018). Tea production characteristics of tea growers (plantations and smallholdings) and livelihood dimensions of tea workers in Assam. India. Data in Brief, 17,1379-1387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2018.02.056

9. Boehm, R., Cash, S. B.,Anderson, B. T., Ahmed, S., Griffin, T., Robbat, A. J., Stepp, J. R., Han, W. Y., Hazel, M., & Orians, C. M. (2016). Association between empirically estimated monsoon dynamics and other weather factors and historical tea yields in China: Results from a yield response model. Climate, 4, 20. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli4020020
10. Bore, J. K., Cheserek, B. C., Ng'etich, W. K., & Yegon, S. K. (2011). An analysis of the incidences of hail damage in tea areas of Kenya. Tea, 32(1), 15-20
11. De Costa, W. A. J. M., Mohotti, A .J., & Wijeratne, A. M. (2007). Ecophysiology of tea. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, 19, 299–332. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1677-04202007000400005
12. Ding, Y., Wang, Z., & Sun, Y. (2008) Inter-decadal variation of the summer precipitation in East China and its association with decreasing Asian summer monsoon Part I: observed evidences. International Journal of Climatology: A Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 28, 1139–61. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.1615
13. Doğan, S. (2005). Türkiye’nin küresel iklim değişikliğinde rolü ve önleyici küresel çabaya katılım girişimleri. Çukurova Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 6(2), 57-73.
14. Dolferus, R. (2014). To grow or not to grow: A stressful decision for plants. Plant Science, 2229: 247-261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2014.10.002
15. Duan, L. (1992). Investigations on the physiology of tolerance in plantation crops. Effects of water stress on the growth of tea plants. Tea Science and Technology Bulletin, 1, 12-15
16. Duncan, J. M. A., Saikia, S. D., Gupta, N., & Biggs, E. M. (2016). Observing climate impacts on tea yield in Assam, India. Applied Geography, 77,64-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2016.10.004.
17. Esham, M., & Garforth, C. (2013). Climate change and agricultural adaptation in Sri Lanka: a review. Climate and Development, 5, 66–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2012.762333
18. FAO (2019). Food and Agricultural commodities production database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC. [Access date: 22.11.2021].
19. FAO. (2023). Food and Agricultural commodities production database, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QCL) [Access date: 02.11.2023].
20. Farooq, M., Wahid, A., Kobayashi, N., Fujita, D., & Basra, S. M. A. (2009). Plant dorught stress: effects, mechanisms and management. Sustainable Agriculture, 29, 185-212. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro:2008021
21. Gesimba, R. M., Langat, M. C., Liu, G., & Wolukau, J. N. (2005). The tea industry in Kenya; The challenges and positive developments. Journal of Applied Sciences, 5, 334–336. https://doi.org/10.3923/jas.2005.334.336 Goswami, R. (2016). Climate map rings Assam tea alarm. https://www.telegraphindia.com/states/north-east/climate-map-rings-assam-tea-alarm/cid/1414919. [Access date: 12.01.2020].
22. Gürel, A., & Şenel, Z., (2010, Eylül 22-24). Tarım ve iklim değişikliği ilişkisinde alınması gereken önlemlerin tarımsal yayım açısından irdelenmesi. Türkiye 9. Tarım Ekonomisi Kongresi, 2. Cilt, 728-739.
23. Han, W. Y, Huang, J. G., Li, X., Li, Z. X., Ahammed, G. J., Yan, P., & Stepp, J. R. (2017) Altitudinal effects on the quality of green tea in east China: a climate change perspective. European Food Research and Technology, 243, 323–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00217-016-2746-5
24. Jayasinghe, S. L., & Kumar, L. (2019) Modeling the climate suitability of tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze] in Sri Lanka in response to current and future climate change scenarios. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology, 272, 102–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agrformet.2019.03.025
25. Kahn, B. (2015). Climate change poses a brewing problem for tea. Climate Central. http://www.climatecentral.org/news/climate-change-altering-tea-industry-19071. [Access date: 25.01.2020].
26. Karapetyan, A. S. (2022). Physıologıcal Effects Of Tea. Молодежный инновационный вестник, 11(1), 19-20.
27. Karapınar, B., Özartan, G., Tetsuji, T., An, N., Tufan, M., & Turp, M. T. (2020). Sustainability of agricultural product supply under the ımpact of climate change. TÜSİAD, 3,616, ISBN: 978-605-165-045-6.
28. Korkmaz, K. (2007). Küresel ısınma ve tarımsal uygulamalara etkisi. Alata Bahçe Kültürleri Araştırma Enstitüsü Alatarım Dergisi, 6(2), 43-49.
29. Kowalsick, A., Kfoury, N., Robbat, A., Ahmed, S., Orians, C., Griffin, T., Cash, S. B., & Stepp J. R. (2014). Metabolite profiling of Camellia sinensis by automated sequential, multidimensional gas chromatography/mass spectrometry reveals strong monsoon effects on tea constituents. Journal of Chromatography A, 1370, 230–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chroma.2014.10.058
30. Larson, C. (2015). Reading the tea leaves for effects of climate change. (https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.348.6238.953) [Access date: 25.09.2023].
31. Lin, S. K., Lin, J., Liu, Q. L., Ai, Y. F., Ke, Y. Q., & Chen, C. (2014). Time-course photosynthesis and non-structural carbon compounds in the leaves of tea plants (Camellia sinensis L. O. Kuntze) in response to deficit irrigation. Agricultural Water Managemen., 144, 98–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.06.005
32. Lipiec, J., Doussan, C., Nosalewicz, A., & Kondracka, K. (2013) Effect of drought and heat stresses on plant growth and yield: a review. Internatıonal Agrophysics, 27, 463–77. https://doi.org/10.2478/intag-2013-0017
33. Lou, L. (2010). Price increase of premium Longjin tea resulted from late spring coldness. Brand and Standardization, 7: 45.
34. MacCracken, M. C. (2001). Global Warming: A Science Overview, pp. 151-159 in Global Warming and Energy Policy, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, New York, 220 pp. (Akt: Korkmaz, K., 2007. Küresel Isınma ve Tarımsal Uygulamalara Etkisi, Alatarım dergisi, 6 (2): 43-49).
35. Maritim, T. K., Kamunya, S. M., Mireji, P., Mwendia, V., Muoki, R. C., & Cheruiyot, E. K. (2015). Physiological and biochemical responses of tea (Camellia sinensis L. O. Kuntze) to water deficit stress. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 90, 395–400. https://doi.org/10.1080/14620316.2015.11513200
36. MGM, (2023). T.C. Çevre, Şehircilik Ve İklim Değişikliği Bakanlığı, Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü, (https://www.mgm.gov.tr/iklim/iklim-degisikligi.aspx) [Erişim Tarihi: 25.04.2023].
37. Muoki, C. R, Maritim, T. K., Oluoch, W. A., Kamunya, S. M. & Bore, J. K. (2020). Combating Climate Change in the Kenyan Tea Industry. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, 339. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00339
38. Nemec-Boehm, R., Cash, R. L., Anderson, S. B., Bruce, A., Griffin, S., Orians, T. S., Robbat, C. M., Stepp, A. & Han, R. A. (2014). Climate change, the monsoon, and tea yields in China. Agricultural & Applied Economics Association’s 2014 AAEA Annual Meeting, Minneapolis, MN, July 27-29. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268391287_Climate_change_the_monsoon_and_tea_yields_in_China.
39. Netto, L. A., Jayarami, K. M., & Puthuri, J. T. (2010). Clonal variation of tea (Camellia sinensis L. O. Kuntze) in countering water deficiency. Physiology and Molecular Biology of Plants, 16, 359–367. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12298-010-0040-8
40. Nowogrodzki, A. (2019). The changing seasons of tea. Nature, 566. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-00399-0 Ochieng, J., Kirimi, L., & Mathenge, M. (2016). Effects of climate variability and change on agricultural production: the case of small scale farmers in Kenya. NJAS: Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences, 77, 71–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2016.03.005
41. OKP, (2013). Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Kalkınma Bakanlığı Onuncu Kalkınma Planı (2014-2018). https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2022/08/Onuncu_Kalkinma_Plani-2014-2018.pdf.
42. Otten, D. (2010). Tea—Second most consumed beverage in the world. Retrieved November, 1, 2010.
43. Özbucak, S., Özbucak, İ., & Özbucak, T. B. (2019, Haziran 22-23). İklim değişikliğinin fındık üzerindeki olası etkileri. 3. Uluslararası ÜNİDOKAP Karadeniz “SürdürülebilirTarım ve Çevre” Sempozyum Kitabı 90.
44. Özyazıcı, M. A., Sağlam, M., Dengiz, O., & Erkoçak, A. (2014). Çay tarımı yapılan topraklara yönelik faktör analizi ve jeoistatistik uygulamaları: Rize ili örneği. Toprak Su Dergisi, 3(1), 22-23.
45. Pope, K. S., Dose, V., Da Silva, D., Brown, P. H., & DeJong, T. M. (2015). Nut crop yield records show that budbreak-based chilling requirements may not reflect yield decline chill thresholds. International journal of biometeorology, 59, 707-715. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-014-0881-x
46. TAGEM, (2001). İklim Değişikliklerinin Tarım Üzerindeki Etkileri. Tarım ve Köy İşleri Bakanlığı Koruma ve Kontrol Genel Müdürlüğü İklim Değişikliklerinin Tarım Üzerindeki Etkileri Paneli, https://www.tarimorman.gov.tr/TRGM/Belgeler/%C4%B0klim%20De%C4%9Fi%C5%9Fikli%C4%9Fi%20ve%20Tar%C4%B1m.pdf.
47. Tezara, W., Mitchell, V., Driscoll, S. P. and Lawlor, & D. W. (2002). Effects of water deficit and interaction with CO2 supply on the biochemistry and physiology of photosynthesis in sunflower. Journal of Experimental Botany, 53, 1781–1791. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/erf021
48. Thushara, S. C. (2015, May 22-24). Sri Lankan tea industry: Prospects and challenges. Proceedings of the second Middle East Conference on global business, economics. Finance and banking (ME15Dubai conference). Tunç, G. İ., Aşık, S.T., & Akbostancı, E. (2007). CO2 emissions vs. CO2 responsibility: an ınputoutput approach for the turkish economy. Energy Policy, 35, 855–868.
49. Turp, M. T., Öztürk, T., Türkeş, M. & Kurnaz, M. L. (2014). Investigation of predicted changes for the near future air temperature and precipitation climatologies of Turkey and its surrounding regions using the RegCM4.3.5 regional climate model. Aegean Journal of Geography, 23(1), 1-24.
50. Türkeş, M. (1997). Hava ve iklim kavramları üzerine. TÜBİTAK Bilim ve Teknik Dergisi, 355, 36-37, Ankara. Varol, N., & Ayaz, M. (2012). Küresel iklim değişikliği ve zeytincilik. Türk Bilimsel Derlemeler Dergisi, 5(1):11-13.
51. Wang, H. J., Sun, J. Q., Chen, H. P., Zhu, Y. L., Zhang, Y., Jiang, D. B., Lang, X. M., Fan, K., Yu, E. T., & Yang S. (2012). Extreme climate in China: facts, simulation and projection. Meteorologische Zeitschrift, Fast Track, 21(3), 279. https://doi.org/10.1127/0941-2948/2012/0330
52. Wijeratne, M. (1996). Vulnerability of Sri Lanka tea production to global climate change. Water Air Soil Pollution, 92, 87–94.
53. Wijeratne, M. A., Anandacoomaraswamy, A., Amarathunga, M. K. S. L. D., Ratnasiri, J., Basnayake, B. R. S. B., & Kalra, N. (2007). Assessment of impact of climate change on productivity of tea (Camellia sinensis L.) plantations in Sri-Lanka. National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka, 35, 119–126. https://doi.org/10.4038/jnsfsr.v35i2. 3676
54. Yalçın, G. E. & Kara, F. Ö. (2014 Eylül 3-5). Küresel iklim değişikliğinin türkiye’de tarımsal üretime etkileri ve çözüm önerileri, XI. Ulusal Tarım Ekonomisi Kongresi, Türkiye.
55. Yazıcı, K. (2021). Current Studıes On Fruıt Scıence,. M. Pakyürek(Ed.), (ss 301-323) Iksad Publications.
56. Yıldız, S., & Midilli, A. (2022). Türkiye’de Organik Çay Üretimi ve Pazarlaması. Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, 3(2), 136-145. https://doi.org/10.53501/rteufemud.1174700
57. Zhu, Y., Wang, H., Zhou, W., & Ma, J. (2011). Recent changes in the summer precipitation pattern in East China and the background circulation. Climate Dynamics, 36, 1463-1473. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-010-0852-9