Navigating Emotional Waters in Schools: Becoming an Emotionally Adaptable Leader

Öz

Emotions impact leaders in multiple ways. The current pandemic has exacerbated the stress on all school personnel and the emotional impact can be powerful. While research has examined workplace related emotions for years, the growth of the concept of emotional intelligence spurred greater interest on the impact of emotions on employee and leader performance. But few studies have specifically considered the impact of emotions on leaders given the roles and duties they perform. Nor has research considered the kind of leadership approaches needed to navigate their emotionally-laden reality. This study examines the research on emotions, emotional intelligence, and the triggers in schools that spark emotional reactions. Then, following a discussion of leadership studies on emotional intelligence, transformational leadership, resiliency and related concepts, complexity leadership, crisis and cutback management, and several recent leadership approaches related to improving performance, a framework is offered for becoming an emotionally adaptable leader. The paper concludes with ideas for short-term coping and long-term thriving for emotionally adaptable leaders.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• leadership
• Emotions
• Emotional Inteligence
• Pandemic

Kaynakça

1. Ashforth, B.E. & Humphrey,R.H. (1995). Emotion in the workplace: A reappraisal. Human Relations, 48(2), 97-125.
2. Ashkanasy, N.M. & Dorris, A.D. (2017). Emotions in the workplace. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4, 67-90.
3. Badarocco, J.L., Jr. (1997). Defining moments: When managers must choose between right and right. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
4. Banks, G.C., McCauley, K.D., Gardner, W.L. & Guler, C.E. (2016). A meta-analytic review of authentic and transformational leadership: A test for redundancy. The Leadership Quarterly, 27, 634-652.
5. Baron, L. (2016). Authentic leadership and mindfulness development through action learning. Journal of Management Psychology, 31(1), 296-311.
6. Baron, L., Rouleau, V., Gregoire, S. & Baron, C. (2017). Mindfulness and leadership flexibility. Journal of Management Development, 37(2), 165-177.
7. Basch, J. & Fischer, C.D. (2000). Affective events-emotions matrix: A classification of work events and associated emotions. In, N.M. Ashkanasy, Hartel, C.E.J., & Zerbe, W., 36-48. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
8. Bass, B.M. (1985). Leadership and performance beyond expectations. New York, NY: Free Press.

9. Bass, B.M. & Riggio, R.E. (2006). Transformational Leadership, 2nd edition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
10. Behn, R.D. (1980). Leadership for cut-back management. The use of corporate strategy. Public Administration Review, 40, 613-620.
11. Bellet, C.S., De Neve, J-E, & Ward, G. (2020). Does employee happiness have an impact on productivity? The London School: Centre for Economic Performance. CEP Discussion Paper No. 1655.
12. Berkovich, I. & Eyal, O. (2015). Educational leaders and emotions: An international review of empirical evidence 1992-2012. Review of Educational Research, 85(1), 129-167.
13. Berry, B., Dickinson, T., Harrist, J., Pompey, K., Zheng, J., Irvin, M., Moon, A., & Hodges, T. (July, 2020). Teachers and teaching in the midst of a pandemic: Implications for South Carolina’s policy leaders. All4SC, College of Education, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC.
14. Biller, R.P. (1980). Leadership tactics for retrenchment. Public Administration Review, 40, 605-609.
15. Bombyk, M.J. & Chernesky, R.H. (1985). Conventional cutback leadership and the quality of the workplace: Is beta better? Administration in Social Work, 9, 47-56.
16. Bonella, L., Carroll, D., Jobe, M., Kaff, M., Lane, J., Martinez, T., McKeeman, L., & Shuman, C. (2020). Access, engagement, and resilience during covid-19 remote learning. White Paper - Kansas State University, College of Education Research Group, Manhattan, KS.
17. Boyatzis, R.E. & Soler, C. (2012). Vision, leadership and emotional intelligence transforming family business. Journal of Family Business Management, 2(1), 23-30.
18. Britt, T.W. Shen, W., Sinclair, R.R., Grossman, M.R. & Klieger, D.M. (2016). How much do we really know about employee resilience? Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 9(2), 378-404.
19. Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
20. Carleton, E.L., Barling, J. & Trivisonno, M. (2018). Leaders’ trait mindfulness and transformational leadership: The mediating roles of leaders’ positive affect and leadership efficacy. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 50(3), 185-194.
21. Caruso, D.R. & Salovey, P. (2004). The emotionally intelligent manager: How to develop and use the four key emotional skills of leadership. San Fancisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
22. Cherulnik, P.D., Donley, K.A., Wiewel, T.S.R., & Miller, S.R. (2001). Charisma is contagious: The effect of leaders’ charisma on observers’ affect. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(10), 2149-2159.
23. Clarke, N. (2013). Model of complexity leadership development. Human Resource Development International, 16(2), 135-150.
24. Coombs, W.T. (2007). Crisis management and communication. Gainesville, FL: Institute for Public Relations Essential Knowledge Project.
25. Cooper, R.K. & Sawaf, A. (1996). Executive EQ: Emotional intelligence in leadership & organization. New York: Grossett/Putnam.
26. Dane, E. (2011). Paying attention to mindfulness and its effects on task performance in the workplace. Journal of Management, 37(4), 997-1018.
27. Dashborough, M.T., Sinclair, M., Russell-Bennett, R., Tombs, A, (2008). Measuring emotion: Methodological issues and alternatives. In Research Companion to Emotion in Organizations, N.M. Ashkanasy, C.L. Cooper, Eds. 197-208. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publisher, Ltd.
28. Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M.D. & Kelly, D.R. (2007). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087-1101.
29. Durlak, J. A., Weissberg, R. P., Dymnicki, A. B., Taylor, R. D., & Schellinger, K. B. (2011). The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: A meta‐analysis of school‐based universal interventions. Child Development, 82, 405– 432. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x
30. Eckert, J. (2019). Collective leadership development: Emerging themes from urban, suburban, and rural high schools. Educational Administration Quarterly, 55(3), 477-509.
31. Edelman, P. & van Knippenberg, D. (2018). Emotional intelligence, management of subordinate’s emotions, and leadership effectiveness. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 39(5), 592-607.
32. Educators for Excellence (2020). Voices from the virtual classroom: A survey of America’s teachers on covid-19-related education issues. https://e4e.org/sites/default/files/voices_from_the_virtual_classroom_2020.pdf.
33. Ellis, C. (July 6, 2020). The pillars of leadership wisdom. University of Chicago, Center for Practical Wisdom. https://wisdomcenter.uchicago.edu/news/discussions/pillars-leadership-wisdom
34. Farahnak, L.R., Ehrhart, M.G., Torrews, E.M. & Aarons, G.A. (2020). Journal of Leadership and Organizational Studies, 27(1), 98-111.
35. Farrace, B. (August 21, 2020). Principal say pandemic conditions are accelerating their plans to leave the principalship. NASSP, School of Thought, Blog Post. https://blog.nassp.org/2020/08/21/principals-say-pandemic-conditions-are-accelerating-their-plans-to-leave-the-principalship/.
36. Fischer, K.W., Shaver, P.D., & Carnochan, P. (1990). How emotions develop and how they organize development. Cognitive Emotions, 4, 81-127.
37. Frijda, N. (1992). The empirical status of the laws of emotion. Cognition and Emotion, 6(6), 467-477.
38. Fullan, M. (February, 2016). Amplify change with professional capital. JSD, 37(1), 44-56.
39. Fullan, M. (2005). Resiliency and sustainability. The School Administrator, 62(2), 16-19.
40. Gardner, L. & Stough, C. (2002). Leadership and Organizational Development Journal, 23(2), 68-78.
41. Gardner, W.L., Aviolo, B.J., Luthans, F., May, D.R. & Walumbwa, F. (2005). Can you see the real me? A self-based model of authentic leader and follower development. The Leadership Quarterly, 16, 343-372.
42. Ginsberg, R. & Davies, T.G. (2007). The human side of leadership: Navigating emotions at work. Westport, CT: Preager. Ginsberg, R. & Lyche, L.F. (2008). The culture of fear and the politics of education. Educational Policy, 22 (1), 10-27.
43. Ginsberg R. & Multon, K.D. (2011a). Leading in financially stressful times, 53-67. In, B.S. Cooper & S. Conley, Eds., Keeping and Improving Today’s School Leader’s. NY: Rowman & Littlefield.
44. Ginsberg, R. & Multon, K.D. (2011b). Leading through a fiscal nightmare: The impact on principals and superintendents. Kappan, 92(8), 42-47.
45. Glassner, B. (1999). The culture of fear: Why Americans are afraid of the wrong things. NY: Basic Books.
46. Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ.NY: Bantam Books.
47. Goleman, D. (1998). What makes a leader? Harvard Business Review, 76(6), 93-101.
48. Goleman, D., Boyatzis, R., McKee, A. (2002). Primal Leadership. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press.
49. Grandey, A.A. (2000). Emotion regulation in the workplace: A new way to conceptualize emotional labor. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 95-100.
50. Gross, J.J. (1999). Emotion regulation: Past, present, future. Cognition and Emotion, 13, 551-573.
51. Gross, J.J. & John, O.P. (1997). Revealing feelings: Facets of emotional expressivity in self-reports, peer ratings, and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 435-448.
52. Hamilton, L.S., Kaufman, J.H. & Dilberti, M. (2020). Teaching and learning through a pandemic: Key findings from the American educator panels spring 2020 Covid-19 surveys. Rand Corp: The American Educator Panels. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA168-2.html.
53. Hamline, N., El Moujahid, O., & Thaichon, P. (2017). Emotion and advertising effectiveness: A novel facial expression analysis approach. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 36, 103-111.
54. Hargreaves, A., Boyle, A. & Harris, A. (2014). Uplifting leadership: How organizations, teams, and communities raise performance. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
55. Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J. & Rapson, R.L. (1994). Emotional contagion. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
56. Herrman, H., Stewart, D.E., Diaz-Granados, N., Berger, E.L., Jackson, B. & Yuen, T. (2011). What is resilience? Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 56(5), 258-265.
57. Hochschild, A. R. (1983). The managed heart: Commercialization of human feelings. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
58. Holland, J.H. (1995). Hidden order: How adaptation builds complexity. Reading, MA: Addison Wesley.
59. Humphrey, R.H., Burch, G.F., Adams, L.L. (2016). The benefits of merging leadership research with emotions research. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, Article 1022, 1-12.
60. Humphrey, R.H. (2008). The right way to lead with emotional labor. In Humphrey, R.H., Ed., Affect and Emotion: New Directions in Management Theory and Research, pp. 1-17. Charlotte, NC: Information Age. . Izzard, C.E. (1993). Four systems for emotion activation: cognitive and non-cognitive processes. Psychological Review, 100, 68-90.
61. James, E.H. & Wooten, L.P. (2005). Leadership as (un)usual: How to display competence in times of crisis. Organizational Dynamics, 34(2), 141-152.
62. Judge, T.A. & Piccolo, R.F. (2004). Transformational and transactional leadership: A meta-analytic test of their relative validity. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89(5), 755-768.
63. Kleinginna, P.R. & Kleinginna, A.M. (1981). A categorized list of emotion definitions, with suggestions for a consensual definition. Motivation and Emotion, 5(4), 345-379.
64. Kobasa, S.C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1-11.
65. Kraft, M.A. & Simon, N.S. (June 24, 2020). School organizational practices and the challenges of remote teaching during a pandemic. Shanker Blog, Albert Shanker Institute. https://www.shankerinstitute.org/blog/school-organizational-practices-and-challenges-remote-teaching-during-pandemic.
66. Krietz, P.A. (2009). Leadership and emotional intelligence: A study of university library directors and their senior management teams. College and Research Libraries, 70(6), 531-554. https://crl.acrl.org/index.php/crl/article/view/16043.
67. Lee, C.S. (2018). Authentic leadership and organizational effectiveness: The roles of hope, grit, and growth mindset. International Journal of Pure and Applied mathematics. 118(19), 383-401.
68. Levey, J. & Levey, M. (2019). Mindful leadership for personal and organizational resilience. Clinical Radiology, 74, 739-745. Levey, J. & Levey, M. (2013). Thriving in complex times. MWorld, 12(2) 34-37.
69. Levine, C.H. (1979). More on cutback management: Hard questions for hard times. Public Administration Review, 39, 179-183.
70. Levine, C.H. (1978). Organizational decline and cutback management. Public Administration Review, 38, 316-325.
71. Maddi, S. R. (2006). Hardiness: The courage to grow from stresses. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1(3), 160-168.
72. Maddock, R.C. & Fulton, R.L. (1998). Motivation, emotions, and leadership. Westport, CT: Quorum Books. . Margolius, M., Doyle Lynch, A., Pufall Jones, E. & Hynes, M. (2020). The State of Young People during COVID-19: Findings from a nationally representative survey of high school youth. Americas Promise Alliance.
73. Mayer, J.D. & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In, Salovey, P. & Sluyter, J.D., Eds., Emotional Development and Emotional Intelligence: Educational Implications. New York: Basic Books.
74. Mayer, J.D. & Salovey, P. (1993). The intelligence of emotional intelligence. Intelligence, 17, 433-442.
75. Mayer, J.D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D.R. (2008). Emotional intelligence: New ability or eclectic traits? American Psychologist, 63, 503-517.
76. Meredith, S., Sherbourne, C., Gaillot, S.J., Hansell, L., Ritschard, H.V., Parker, A.M & Wrenn, G. (2011). Promoting psychological resilience in the U.S. military. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
77. Miller, D. (2006). Organizational pathology and industrial crisis. In D. Smith & D. Elliott, Eds., Key readings in crisis management: Systems and structures for prevention and recovery, 75-83. London: Routlege, Taylor Francis Group.
78. Mintz,L.J. & Stoller, J.K. (2014). A systematic review of physician leadership and emotional intelligence. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 6(1), 21-31.
79. Mitroff, I.I., Diamond, M.A., & Alpaslan, M.C. (2006). How prepared are America's colleges and universities for major crises? Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 38:1, 61-67, DOI: 10.3200/CHNG.38.1.61-67.
80. Patterson, J.L., Goens, G.A. & Reed, D.E. (2009). Resilient leadership for turbulent times. Lanham, MD: Rowan & Littlefield Education.
81. Pearson, C.H. & Clair, J.A. (1998). Reframing crisis management. The Academy of Management Review, 23(1), 59-76.
82. Pekrun, R. & Frese, M. (1992). Emotions in work and achievement. In, C.I. Cooper & I.T. Robertson, Eds., International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Chichester, UK: Wiley.
83. Peters, T.J. & Austin, N. (1985). A passion for excellence: The leadership difference. New York: Random House.
84. Plutchnik, R. (1980). A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion, 3-33. In, R. Plutchnik & H. Kellerman, Eds., Emotion: Theory, Research and Experience. San Diego: Academic Press.
85. Pugh, S.D. (2002). Emotional regulation in individuals and dyads. In, Klimoski, R.J., Kanfer, R., & Lord, R.G., Eds’, Emotions in the Workplace: Understanding the Structure and Role of Emotions in Organizational Behavior. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
86. Reb, J., Narayanan, J. & Chaturvedi, S. (2014). Leading mindfully: Two studies on the influence of supervisor trait mindfulness on employee well-being and performance. Mindfulness, 5(1), 36-45.
87. Reiff, H. B., Gerber, P.J. & Ginsberg, R. (1997). Exceeding expectations. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
88. Roche, M., Haar, J.M. & Luthans, F. (2014). The role of mindfulness and psychological capital on the well-being of leaders. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 19(4), 476-489.
89. Robin, C. (2004). Fear: The history of a political idea. NY: Oxford University Press.
90. Rubin, R.S., Staebler-Tardino, V.M., Daus, C.S., & Munz, D. (2005). A reconceptualization of the emotional labor construct: On the development of the integrated theory of perceived emotional dissonance and emotional labor. In, Hartel, C.E.J., Zerbe, J. & Ashkanasy, Eds., Emotions in Organizational Behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
91. Salovey, P. & Mayer, J.D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9(3), 185-211.
92. Sanyal, C. & Rigg, C. (2020, forthcoming). Integrating mindfulness into leadership development. Journal of Management Education, 44, June, 1-22.
93. Schlund, J. & Weissberg, R.P. (May 19, 2020). Leveraging social and emotional learning to support students and families in the time of covid-19. Learning Policy Institute. LPI Blog. https://learningpolicyinstitute.org/blog/leveraging-social-emotional-learning-support-students-families-covid-19.
94. Smits, S.J. & Ally, N.E. (2003). “Thinking the unthinkable” – Leadership’s role in creating behavioral readiness for crisis management. Competitiveness Review, 13(1), 1-23.
95. Stacey, R.D. (1995). The science of complexity: An alternative perspective for strategic change processes. Strategic Management Journal, 16(6), 477-495.
96. Stacey, R.D., Griffin, D. & Snow, P. (2000). Complexity and management: Fad or radical challenge to systems thinking. London: Routlege.
97. Stagman-Tyler, D. (2014). Resiliency and the nurse leader: The importance of equanimity, optimism, and perseverance. Nursing Management, 45(6), 46-50.
98. Stoddard, J. (2020). How resiliency prepares leaders to prevail on battlefields of the future. Journal of Character and Leadership Development, 7(2), 140-153.
99. Sunindijo, R.Y., Hadikusumo, B.H.W., & Ogunlana, S. (2007). Emotional intelligence and leadership styles in construction project management. Journal of Management in Engineering, 23(4), 166-170.
100. Taylor, R.D., Oberle, E, Durlak, J.A. & Weissberg, R.P. (2017). Promoting Positive Youth Development Through School‐Based Social and Emotional Learning Interventions: A Meta‐Analysis of Follow‐Up Effects. Child Development, 88(4), 1156-1171. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12864
101. Tennant, C. & McLean, L. (2001). The impact of emotions on coronary heart disease risk. Journal of Cardiovascular Risk, 8(3), 175-183.
102. Teo, W.L., Lee, M., & Lim, WS (2017). The relational activation of resilience model: How leadership activates resilience in an organizational climate. Journal of Contingencies and Crisis Management, 25, 136-147.
103. Tsai, C., Tsai, L., & Wang, Y-C. (2011). A study n the relationship between leadership style, emotional intelligence, self-efficacy and organizational commitment: A case study of the banking industry in Taiwan. Journal of Business Management, 5(13), 5319-5329.
104. Tying, C.M., Amin, H.U., Saad, M.N.M., & Malik, A.S. (2017). The influences of emotion on learning and memory. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 1454.
105. Uhl-Bien, M. & Marion, R. (2011). Complexity leadership theory. In Bryman, A., Collinson, D., Grint, K., Jackson, B. & Uhl-Bien, M., Sage Handbook of Leadership, 468-481. Los Angeles: Sage.
106. Uhl-Bien, M., Marion, R. & McKelvey, B. (2007). Complexity leadership theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era. The Leadership Quarterly, 18, 298-318.
107. Van Knippenberg, D. & Van Kleef, G.A. (2016). Leadership and affect: Moving the hearts and minds of followers. Academy of Management Annals, 10(1), 799-840.
108. Vitello-Cicciu, J.M. (2003). Nursing Management, 34(10), 28-32.
109. Walter, F.W., Cole, M.S. & Humphrey, R.H. (2011). Emotional intelligence: sine qua non of leadership or folderol? Academy of Management Perspectives, 25(1), 45059.
110. Walumbwa, F.O., Aviolo, B.J., Gardner, W.L., Wernsing, T.S. & Peterson, S.J. (2008). Authentic leadership: Development and validation of a theory-based measure. Journal of Management, 34(1), 89-126.
111. Wheatley, M.J. (1992). Leadership and the new science. San Francisco, CA: Berrett-Koehler Publishers.
112. Williford, A. Fite, P.J., DePaolis, K.J., Cooley, J.L., Hawley, P.H. & Isen, D. (2019) A Comprehensive Training Initiative for Educators to Develop and Implement Effective Anti-Bullying Policies in K–12 Schools. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 35:2, 146-175, DOI: 10.1080/15377903.2018.1528489
113. Yukl, G. (2002). Leadership in organizations, 5th edition. Upper Saddle River, NY: Prentice Hall.