A METATHEORETıCAL APPROACH TO EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF SEARCHING FOR MULTIDIMENSIONAL THEORIES: A CONTINGENCY APPROACH TO EMPOWERMENT

Yıl 2013, , 215 - 238, 01.01.2013

Necmettin Özel

https://doi.org/10.11122/ijmeb.2013.9.18.431

Öz

Empowerment is the key leverage of employee effectiveness in today’s organizations. Hence conditional convenience in terms of the succes of empowerment attempt must be considered. This paper offers an improving to examine the variability of empowerment in its conditions. In this context the contingency approach to empowerment CAE have focused on interactions between contingency variables CVs and empowerment approaches EA and determination of empowerment outcomes EOs concluded by the interactions between CVs and EAs. CVs for CAE are represented by leadership, organizational structure and culture and learning. Analysis of propositinos receals that there is asignificant positive interaction between EAs and CVs. Future research should regarddefining CVs and their interactive. It is recommended that organizasions should pay attention to determining appropriate tools and methods according to their circumstances in terms of applications

Anahtar Kelimeler

Empowerment Need, Empowerment Theories, Contingency Variables, Empowerment Output

ÇOK BOYUTLU KURAM ARAYIŞLARI BAĞLAMINDA İŞGÖREN GÜÇLENDİRME ÜZERİNE META-KURAMSAL BİR YAKLAŞIM: GÜÇLENDİRMEYE KOŞULSALLIK YAKLAŞIMI

Öz

Güçlendirme, çağdaş örgütlerde işgören etkinliğini artırmanın temel manivelasıdır. Ancak, güçlendirme çabasının başarısı açısından koşulsal uygunlukların da dikkate alınması gerekir. Bu nedenle, mevcut çalışma ile güçlendirmeye koşulsal bir yaklaşım önerilmiştir. Güçlendirmeye Koşulsallık Yaklaşımı GKY , koşulsal değişkenlerle KD güçlendirme yaklaşımları GY arasındaki etkileşimler ve bunun bir sonucu oarak ortaya çıkan güçlendirme çıktısı GÇ üzerine odaklanmıştır. Liderlik, örgütsel yapı, örgüt kültürü ve öğrenme, GKY için KD’ler olarak kabul edilmiştir. Önermelerin incelenmesiyle, GY ile KD’ler arasında olumlu anlamlı ilişkiler belirlenmiştir. Gelecek araştırmalar, KD’lerin tanımlanması ve karşılıklı etkileşimleri üzerine daha fazla eğilmelidir. Uygulamalar açısından, örgütlerin kendi koşullarına uygun güçlendirme araç ya da yöntemleri belirlemeye özen göstermeleri önerilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Güçlendirme Gereksinimi, Güçlendirme Kuramı, Koşulsal Değişkenler, Güçlendirme Çıktısı

Kaynakça

• Abd. Ghani, N. A., Raja Hussin, T. A. B. S. & Jusoff, K. (2009). Antecedents of psychological empowerment in the Malaysian Private Higher Education Institutions. International Education Studies, (2)3, 161-165.
• Adler, A. (2007). İnsan tabiatını tanıma. (Çev. A. Yörükan). İstanbul: İş Bankası Yayınları.
• Anderson, K. S., & Sandmann, L. (2009). Toward a model of empowering practices in youth-adult partnerships. Journal of Extension, (47)2.
• Argyris, C. (1957). Personality and organization: The coflict between system and the individual. New York: Harper & Row.
• Argyris, C. (1977). Double-loop learning in organizations: By uncovering their own hidden theories of action, managers can detect and correct errors. Harvard Business Review, Sept.–Oct., 116-125.
• Argyris, C. (1994). Good communication that blocks learning. Harvard Business Review, Jul.-Aug., 77-85.
• Argyris, C. (1998). Empowerment: The emperor’s new clothes. Harvard Business Review, May.-Jun., 98-105.
• Argyris, C. (2000). Integrating the individul and the organization. New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers.
• Argyris, C., & Schön, D. (1974), Theory in practice: İncreasing professional effectiveness. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
• Arslantaş, C. C. (2007). Güçlendirici lider davranışının psikolojik güçlendirme üzerindeki etkisini belirlemeye yönelik görgül bir araştırma. Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (7)2, 227-240.
• Atwater, D. C., & Bass, B. M. (1994). Transformational leadership in teams. In B. M. Bass, B. J. Avolio (Eds.), Improving Organizational Effectiveness through Transformational Leadership (pp. 26-47). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Avcı, U. (2009). Öğrenme yönelimliliğin yenilik performansı üzerine etkisi: Muğla mermer sektöründe bir inceleme. ZKÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (5)10, 121–138.
• Bailey, T. L. (2009). Organizartional culture, macro and micro empowerment dimensions, and job satisfaction: An application of concurrent mixed and multi- level methods in the federal sector. Boca Raton, FL: Dissertation.com.
• Baldwin, M. (2004). Critical reflection: Opportunities and threats to professional learning and service development in social work organizations. In N. Gould, M. Baldwin (Eds.), Social organization (pp.41- 56). Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing. work, critical reflection and the learning
• Bandura, A. (1999). A social cognitive theory of personality. In L. A. Pervin, O. P. John (Eds.), Handbook of Personality, (2nd ed. pp. 154-196). New York: Guilford Publications.
• Bass, B. M., & Avolio, B. J. (1994). Introduction. In B. M. Bass, B. J. Avolio, (Eds.), Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership (pp.26-47). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Bass, B. M., & Riggio, R. E. (2006). Transformational leadership. (2nd ed.) New Jersey: Erlbaum.
• Baxter, J., & Eric, O. W. (2000). The glass ceiling hypothesis: A comparative study of the Unated States, Sweden and Australia. Gender and Society, 14(2), 275-294.
• Becker, W. S. (2007). Field of dreams: Team implementaions and greenfields. Team Performance Management, 13(3-4), 65-89.
• Benjamin *Jr., L. T., DeLeon, P. H., Freedheim, D. K., & VandenBos, G. R. (2003). Psychology as a profession. In I. B. Weiner, (ed.-in-chief). Handbook of psychology, (pp. 27-46). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
• Betts, S. C. (2003). Contingency theory: Science or technology. Journal of Business and Economic Research, 1(8), 123-130.
• Birkinshaw, J., Nobel, R., & Ridderstrale, J. (2002). Knowledge as a contingency variable: Do the characteristics of knowledge predict organization structure? Organization Science, 13(3), 279-284.
• Blinde, E. M., & Taub, D. E. (1999). Personal empowerment through sport and physical fitness activity: Perspectives from male college students with physical and sensory disabilities. Journal of Sport Behavior, 22(2), 181-202.
• Boje, D. (1999). Five centuries of mechanistic-organic debate. Retreived Feb 19, 2012, from http://business.nmsu.edu/~dboje/between.html
• Bolat, O. İ., Bolat, T., & Seymen, O. A. (2009). Güçlendirici lider davranışları ve örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışı arasındaki ilişkinin sosyal mübadele kuramından hareketle incelenmesi. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 12(21), 215-239.
• Bolden, R., Gosling, J., Marturano, A., & Dennison, P. (2003). A review of leadership theory and competency framework. University of Exeter, Centre for Leadesrhip Studies. http://www2.fcsh.unl.pt/docentes/luisrodrigues/textos/Lideran%C3%A7a.pdf Jan 15, 2012, from
• Bowen, D. E., & Lawler, E. E. (2005). Empowering service employee. In A. Betteley, D. Mayle, & T. Tantoush (Eds.), Operations management, a strategic approach, (pp. 259-273). London: Sage Publications.
• Burns, T., & Stalker, G. M. (1961). The management of innovation. London: Tavistock.
• Carpenito-Moyet, L. J. (2006). Nursing diagnosis: Application to clinical practice. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
• Conger, J. A., & Kanungo, R. N. (1988). The empowerment process: Integrating theory and practice. The Academy of Management Review, 13(3), 471-482.
• Dastmalchian, A., & Javidan, M. (1998). High-commitment leadership: A study of Iranian executives. Journal of Comparative International Management, 1(1), 23- 37.
• Deal, T. E., & Kennedy, A. A. (1982). Corporate culture: The rites and rituals of corporate life. New York: Addison-Wesley.
• De Silva, S. (1997, May). Human resources development for competitiveness: A prority for employers. Paper presented at The ILO workshop on employers’ organizations in Asia-Pasific in The Twenty-First Century, Turin, Italy.
• Donaldson, L. (2001). The contingency theory of organizations: Foundations for organizational science. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Downing, C. E., Gallaugher, J., & Segars, A. H. (2004). Culture, information technology choice and empowerment: Revisiting the interplay. In K. P. Mehdi, J. Travers, A. Appicello, M. Rossi, & I. Widitz (Eds.), Advanced Topics in Glabaol Information Management (3rd. ed. pp. 72-92). London: Idea Group Publishing.
• Downs, C. W., Downs A., A., Potvin, T. Varona, F., Gribas, J.S., & TicehurstI, W. (1996). A cross-cultural comparasion of relationships between organizational commitment and organizational communication. Paper presented at the 46th Annual Conference of the International Communication Association, May 23- 27, Albuquerque, NM.
• Dweck, C. S. (2000). Self-theories: Their role in motivation, personality and development. Philadelphia: Taylor & Francis.
• Dweck, C. S., & Leggett, E. L. (1988). Social-cognitive approach to motivation and personality. Psychological Review, 95(2), 256-273.
• Emerson, R. M. (1962). Power-dependence relations. American Sociological Review
• Frischer, J. (2006). Laissez-faire leadership versus empowerment leadership in new product developement. Management and Philosophy, 1,. Retrieved Jan 21, 2012, from http://vbn.aau.dk/files/18718540/Laissez-faire_Leadership_
• Gagné, M., Senécal, C. B., & Koestner, R. (1997). Proximal job characteristics, feelings of empowetment and intrinsic motivation: A multidimensional model. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27(14), 1222-1240.
• Gao, L., Janssen, O., & Shi, K. (2011). Leader trust and employee voice: The moderating role of empowering leader behaviors. The Leadership Quarterly, 22, 787-798.
• Garvin, D. A., Edmondson,A. C., & Gino, F. (2008). Is yours a learning organization? Harvard Business Review, 86(3) 109-116.
• Gill, A., Flaschner, A. B., & Bhutani, S. (2010). The impact of transformational leadership and empowerment on employee eob stres. Business and Economics Journal, 1-11.
• Glass, J. F., & Muthu, G. P. (1999, July). Learning and individual differences: A systems approach. Paper presented at the HERDSA, Annual International Conference, http://www.herdsa.org.au/wpcontent/uploads/conference/1999/pdf/Glass.PDF Retrieved May 27, 2012, from
• Goncalo, J. A., & Staw, B. M. (2005). Individualism-collectivism and group creativity. Faculty Publications-Organizational Behavior, Cornell University, Scholl of Industrial http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/obpubs/1 Relations. Retrieved May 17, 2012, from
• Gould, N. (2004). The learning organization and reflective practice-the emergence of a concept. In N. Gould, & M. Baldwin (Eds.), Social work, critical reflection and the learning organization, (pp. 1- 10). Hampshire: Ashgate Publishing.
• Graeff, C. L. (1983). The situational leadership theory: A critical view. Academy of Management Review, 8(2), 285-291.
• Greenfield, P. M., Maynard, A. E., & Childs, C. P. (2000). History, culture, learning, and development. Cross-Cultural Research, 34(4), 351-374.
• Hart, A. N. (2008). The educational theory of B. F. Skinner. Retrieved Jun 24, 2011, from http://www.newfoundations.com/GALLERY/Skinner.html
• Houghton, J. D., & Yoho, S. K. (2005). Toward a contigency model of leadership and psychological empowerment: When should self-leadership be encouraged. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 11(4), 65-83.
• House, R. J. (1996). Path-goal theory of leadership: Lessons, legacy and formulated theory. Leadersp Quarterly, 7(3), 323-352.
• Ivancevich, J. M., Lorenzi, P., Skinner, S. J., & Crosby, P. B. (1994). Management, quality and competitiveness. Boston: Irwin.
• Johnson, J. R. (1998). Embracing change: A leadershp model for the learning organization. International Journal of Training and Development, 2(2), 141-150.
• Joyes, G., & Frize, P. (2005). Valuing individual differences within learning: from face- to-face to online experience. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 17(1), 33-41.
• Juran, J. M. (2000). How to think about quality. In J. M. Juran, & A. B. Godfrey, (Co- eds. in chief). Juran’s Quality Handbook, (5th. ed., pp. 2.1-2.18). International Edition: McGraw-Hill
• Kane-Urrabazo, C. (2006). Management’s role in shaping organizatioanal culture. Journal of Nursing Management, 14, 188-194.
• Kleinbaum, A. M., Stuart, T. E., & Tushman, M. L. (2008). Communication (and Coordination?) in a modern, complex organization. Working Paper No. 09-004, Jul, Harvard Business School.
• Kohm, B. (2007). Developing a collaborative culture: From command and control to collaborative responsibility”, In B. Kohm, & B. Nance, Principals who learn: Asking the right questions seeking the best solutions, (pp. 205-226). Virginia: Association for Supervision Curriculum Development.
• Koontz, H. (1980). The management theory jungle revisited. Academy of Management Review, 5(2) 175-182.
• Kurstedt, H. A. (1996). Understanding and using empowerment to change organizational culture. Industrial Management, Nov. 1. Retrieved Jan 24, 2012, from analysis/596742-1.html
• Ladd, T. R. (2004). Empowerment: Delegation of authority. In M. J. Stahl (ed.), Ancyclopedia of Health Care Management, (p. 180). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Laudon, K. C., & Laudon, J. P. (1998). Management information systems. New approaches to organization and technology. New Jersey: Prentice Hall International.
• Leahey, T. H. (2003). Cognition and learning. In I. B. Weiner, (ed.in-chief), Handbook of Psychology, (pp. 109-134). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
• Leigh, R. (2002, November). Volunteer work for the empowerment of human dignity. IAVE 17th World conference, Seoul.
• Lewin, K., Lippitt, R., & White, R. K. (1939). Patterns of aggressive behavior in experimentally created ‘social climates. Journal of Social Psychology, 10(2), 271-299.
• Likert, R. (1961). New patterns of management. New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Lim, B. (1995). Examining the organizational culture and perfıormance link. Leadership and Organization Development Journal, 16(5), 16-21.
• Limerick, D., & Cunnington, B. (1993). Collaborative indıvidualism and the end of the corporate citizen: Managing the new organization. Chatswood: Business & Professional http://www.minessence.net/pdfdocs/collaborativeindividualism.pdf Retrieved Jul 18, 2012, from
• Lunenburg, F. C. (2011). Mechanistic-organic organizations-an axiomatic theory: Authority based on burochracy or professional norms. International Journal of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 14(1). Retrieved Mar 04, 2012, from http://www.nationalforum.com/Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Lunenburg, %20Fred%20C.%20Mechanistic%20&%20Organic%20Organizations%20IJSAI D%20V14%20N1%202011.pdf
• Lunenburg, F. C., & Ornstein, A. C. (2012). Educational administration: Concepts and practices. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Cengage.
• Malhotra, A., Schuler, S. R., & Boender, C. (2002). Measuring women’s empowerment as a variable international development. Paper prepared at the World Bank workshop on powerty and gender, International Center for Research on Women Washington, DC.
• Marquis, B. L., & Huston, C. J. (2009) Leadership roles and management functions in Nursing:Theory Health/Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. application. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer
• Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality. New York: Harper & Row.
• McClelland, D., & Burnham, D. H. (2003). Power is the great motivator. Human Busines Review, 117-126
• McClelland, D., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1992). How do self-attributed and imlicit motives differ?. In C. P. Smith, J. W. Atkinson, D. C. McClelland, & J. Veroff (Eds.), Motivation and personality: Handbook of thematic content analysis (pp. 49-72). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• McGregor, D. (1970). Örgütün insan ilişkileri yönü. (Çev. D. Energin). Ankara: ODTÜ Yayınları.
• Miri, A., Rangriz, H., & Sabzikaran, E. (2011). The relationship between organizational structure and employees’ empowerment in National Iranian Oil Products Distribution Company. Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business and Management Review, 1(1), 51-68.
• Mishra, B., & Bhaskar, A. U. (2010). Empowerment: A necessary attribute of a learning organization? Organizations and markets in emerging economies, 1(2), 48-70.
• Mohr, L. B. (1971). Organizational technology and organizational structure. Administrative Science Quarterly, 16(4), 444-459.
• Monge, P. R., & Contractor, N. S. (2003). Theories of communication Networks. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Nance, B. (2007). What do we know: From expert to learner. In B. Kohm, & B. Nance (Eds.), Principals who Learn: Asking the right questions seeking the best solutions (pp.141-158). Virginia: Association for Supervision Curriculum Development.
• Needle, D. (1989). Business in context. London: Capman & Hall.
• Newstrom, J. W., & Davis, K. (1993). Organizational behavior. International edition: McGraw-Hill.
• Nutt, P. C., & Backoff, R. W. (1993). Transforming public organizations with strategic management and strategic leadership. Journal of Management, 19(2), 299-347.
• Orlikowski, W. J. (2008). Using technology and constituting structures: A practice lens for studying technology in organizations. In M. S. Ackermen, C. A. Halverson, T. Ericson, & W. A. Kellogg (Eds.). Resources, co-evaluated and artifacts, theory in CSCW (pp. 255-305). London: Springer.
• Ouchi, W. G., & Wilkins, A. L. (1985). Organizational culture. Annual Review of Sociology, 11, 457-483.
• Oxaal, Z., & Baden, S. (1997). Gender and empowerment: Definitions, approaches and implications for policy. Bridge (development-Gender), Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Report No: 40, (Briefing prepared for the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), Oct, Brighton.
• Park, S. (2011). The impact of organizational learning culture, goal orientation, managerial effectiveness and psychological empowerment on employees’ workplace learning. A dissertation submitted to The Faculty of Graduate Schoool of The University of Minnesota. Retrieved Aug 08, 2012, from http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/112731/1/Park_umn_0130E_11921.pdf
• Perkins, D. D., & Zimmerman, M. A. (1995). Empowerment theory, research, and application. American Journal of Community Psychology, 23(5), 569-579.
• Potterfield, T. A. (1999). The business of employee empowerment- democracy and ideology in the workplace. Westport: Quorum Books.
• Pór, G. (2001). Management education and knowledge ecology. BizEd, Nov-Dec, The Publication of Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business.
• “Queensland Health”. (2010). Five cross-cultural capabilities for non-clinical staff. Division of the Chief Health Officer, Queensland Health, Brisbane. Retrieved Feb http://www.health.qld.gov.au/multicultural/health_workers/CCC-non-clinical.pdf 18, 2012, from
• Riehle, D. (1998). Bureaucracy. In R. C. Martin, D. Riehle, & F. Buschmann (Eds.), Pattern languages of programme designe 3 (pp. 163-186). Boston: Addison- Wesley.
• Robbins, S. B. (1992). Essentials of organizational behavior. NJ: Prentice Hall.
• Samad, S. (2007). Social structural characteristics and employee empowermwnt: The role of proactive personality. International Review of Business Research Papers
• Schermerhorn, J. R. (1996). Management and organizational behavior. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
• Schein, E. H., (2009). The corporate culture survival guide. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
• Schein, E. H., (2002). Örgüt kültürü. (Çev. A. Akbaba). DEÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 4(3), 1-32.
• Schuler, R. S., & Jackson, S. E. (1989). Determinants of human resource management priorities and implications for industrial relations. Journal of Management, 15(1), 89-99.
• Senge, P. M. (2004). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of learning organization, currency http://www.scribd.com/doc/8057347/Peter-Senge-The-Fifth-Discipline-1 Retrieved Feb 04, 2012, from
• Shin, S. J., & Zhou, J. (2003). Transformational leadership, conservation and creativity: Evidence from Korea. Academy of Management Journal, 46(6), 703-714.
• Sigler, T. H., & Pearson, C. M. (2000). Creating an empowering eulture: Examining the relationship between organizational culture and perceptions of empowerment. Journal of Quality Management, 5(1), 27-52.
• Sine, D., Mitsuhashi, H., & Kirsch, D. A. (2006). Rewisiting Burns and Stalker: Formal structure and new venture performance in emerging economic sectors. Academy of Mnagement Journal, 49(1), 121-132.
• Somech, A. (2005). Directive versus participative leadership: Two complementary approaches to managing school effectiveness. Educational Administration Quarterly, 41(5), 777-800.
• Spreitzer, G. M. (2007). Giving peace a chance: Organizational leadership, empowerment and peace. Journal of Organizational Behaviour, 28, 1077–1095.
• Spreitzer, G. M. (1996). Social structural characteristics of psychological empowerment. Academy of Management Journal, 39(2), 483-504.
• Spreitzer, G. M., & Doneson, D. (2005). Musings on the past and future of employee empowerment. In T. Cummings (ed.), The handbook of organizational development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Spreitzer, G. M., De Janasz, S. C., & Quinn, R. E. (1999). Empowered to lead: The role of psychological empowerment in leadership. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 20, 511-526.
• Spreitzer, G. M., & Quin, R. E. (1996). Empowering middle managers to be transformational leaders. Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 32(3), 237-261.
• Spreitzer, G. M., Kizilos, M. A., & Nason, S. W. (1997). A dimensional analysis of the relationship between psychological empowerment and effectiveness, satisfaction, and strain. Journal of Management, (23)5, 679-705.
• Srivastava, A. K. (2008). Effect of perceived work environment on employees’ job behaviour and organizational effectiveness. Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology, (34)1, 47-55.
• Thamizhmanii, S. H. (2010). A review on an employee empowerment in TQM practice. Journal of Achievements in Materials and Manufacturing Engineering, 39(2), 204-210.
• Thomas, K. W., & Velthouse, B. A. (1990). Cognitve elements of empoverments: An ‘interpretive’ model of intrinsic task motivation. Academy of Management Review, 15(4), 666-681.
• Tutar, H., Tuzcuoğlu, F., Argun, Ç., & Akman, E. (2009). Dönüşümcü/etkileşimci liderliğin örgütsel adanmışlık üzerine etkisi: Karşılaştırmalı bir çalışma. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Uluslararası Davraz Kongresi, Kongre Kitabı (ss. 1384-1396).
• Vat, K. H. (2004).Toward a learning organization model for student empowerment: A teacher-designer’s experience as a coach by the side. LADIS International conference cognition and exploratory learning in digital age (CELDA 2004). Retrieved http://www.iadis.net/dl/final_uploads/200407L017.pdf 28, 2012, from
• Wandersman, A., Snell-Johns, J., Lentz, B. E., Fetterman, D. M., Keener, D. C., Livet, M., Imm, P. S., & Flaspohler, P. (2005). The principles of empowerment evaluation. In A. Wandersman, & D. M. Fetterman (Eds), Empowerment evaluation principles in practice (pp. 27-41). New York: Guilford Press.
• Werther W. B., & Davis, K. (1993). Human resources and personnel management. McGraw-Hill.
• Wilkinson, A. (1998). Empowerment: Theory and practice. Personnel Review, 27(1), 40-56.
• Yammarino, F. J. (1994). Indirect leadership: Transformational leadership at a distance. In B. M. Bass, & B. J. Avolio (Eds.), Improving organizational effectiveness through transformational leadership (pp. 48-83). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
• Yukl, G. A., & Becker, W. S. (2006). Efeective empowerment in organizations. Organization Management Journal, 3(3), 210-231.
• Zeithaml, V. A., Varadarajan, P. R., & Zeithaml, C. P. (1993). The contingency approach: Its foundations and relevance approach to theory building and research in marketing. European Journal of Marketing, 22(7), 37-64.
• Zhu, W., May, D. R., & Avolio, B. J. (2004). The impact of ethical leadership behavior on employee outcomes: The roles of psychological empowerment and authenticity. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 11(1), 16-26.